FH国王
F. H. KING
四十世纪的农民
FARMERS OF
FORTY CENTURIES
中国、韩国和日本的有机农业
ORGANIC FARMING IN
CHINA, KOREA, AND JAPAN
FH国王
F. H. KING
DOVER PUBLICATIONS , INC .纽约米尼奥拉
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.
MINEOLA, NEW YORK
书目注释
Bibliographical Note
该多佛版本于 2004 年首次出版，是《四十个世纪的农民；或中国、韩国和日本的永久性农业》的完整再版，最初由威斯康星州麦迪逊的 FH King 夫人于 1911 年出版。
This Dover edition, first published in 2004, is an unabridged republication of Farmers of Forty Centuries; or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan, originally published by Mrs. F. H. King, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1911.
美国国会图书馆出版编目数据
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
金，FH（富兰克林·海勒姆），1848-1911 年。
King, F. H. (Franklin Hiram), 1848–1911.
四千年的农民：中国、韩国和日本的有机农业/FH King。
Farmers of forty centuries : organic farming in China, Korea, and Japan / F. H. King.
页厘米
p. cm.
最初出版：威斯康星州麦迪逊：FH King 夫人，1911 年。
Originally published: Madison, Wis. : Mrs. F.H. King, 1911.
ISBN-13：978-0-486-43609-8（pbk。）
ISBN-13: 978-0-486-43609-8 (pbk.)
ISBN-10: 0-486-43609-8 (平装)
ISBN-10: 0-486-43609-8 (pbk.)
1. 农业——中国。2. 农业——日本。3. 农业——韩国。I. 标题：40世纪的农民。II. 标题。
1. Agriculture—China. 2. Agriculture—Japan. 3. Agriculture—Korea. I. Title: Farmers of 40 centuries. II. Title.
S471.C6.K5 2004
630'.951—dc22
S471.C6.K5 2004
630’.951—dc22
2003064724
2003064724
由美国 Courier Corporation 制造
43609803
www.doverpublications.com
Manufactured in the United States by Courier Corporation
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www.doverpublications.com
前言
PREFACE
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作者：D R. LH BAILEY。
By DR. L. H. BAILEY.
我们尚未积累人类耕耘土地的经验；然而，耕耘土地是文明的基础。如果我们要汇集所有力量和力量，最终征服地球，就必须确切地了解，所有地方的所有民族是如何面临利用土地生产食物这一难题的。
We have not yet gathered up the experience of mankind in the tilling of the earth; yet the tilling of the earth is the bottom condition of civilization. If we are to assemble all the forces and agencies that make for the final conquest of the planet, we must assuredly know how it is that all the peoples in all the places have met the problem of producing their sustenance out of the soil.
我们很少有伟大的农业旅行家，描写真实而意义深远的乡村状况的书籍也寥寥无几。自然历史游记我们读过很多；而对景点和事件的记述或许已经太多了。诚然，也有一些著名的乡村研究和旅行书籍，其中一些，例如亚瑟·杨的《法国游记》，触及了社会和政治历史；但总体而言，农业旅行的作者尚未发展成熟。现在必须将科学探究的精神带入这个领域，所有征服地球的成果都必须加以比较，并将成果分享给辛勤工作的人们。
We have had few great agricultural travelers and few books that describe the real and significant rural conditions. Of natural history travel we have had very much; and of accounts of sights and events perhaps we have had too many. There are, to be sure, famous books of study and travel in rural regions, and some of them, as Arthur Young’s “Travels in France,” have touched social and political history; but for the most part, authorship of agricultural travel is yet undeveloped. The spirit of scientific inquiry must now be taken into this field, and all earth-conquest must be compared and the results be given to the people that work.
这正是我阅读金教授手稿时所持的观点。这是一位训练有素的观察家的著作，他远行不是为了寻找消遣，也不是为了描绘风景和常见的奇观，而是为了研究农业民族的实际生活状况。我们北美人习惯于认为，我们可以指导全世界的农业发展，因为我们拥有巨大的农业财富，而且我们向弱势民族的出口量很大；但这种财富之所以巨大，是因为我们的土地肥沃而崭新，人均耕种面积很大。我们实际上才刚刚开始耕种。农业的首要条件是保持肥沃。东方民族已经遇到了这个问题，并以自己的方式解决了它。我们或许永远不会采用特定的方法，但我们可以从他们的经验中获益匪浅。随着近代个人需求的增长，新兴国家或许永远无法达到像日本和中国那样的人口密度；但无论如何，我们必须学习保护自然资源（也就是土地资源）的第一课。这就是金教授从东方带回的信息。
This was the point of view in which I read Professor King’s manuscript. It is the writing of a well-trained observer who went forth not to find diversion or to depict scenery and common wonders, but to study the actual conditions of life of agricultural peoples. We in North America are wont to think that we may instruct all the world in agriculture, because our agricultural wealth is great and our exports to less favored peoples have been heavy; but this wealth is great because our soil is fertile and new, and in large acreage for every person. We have really only begun to farm well. The first condition of farming is to maintain fertility. This condition the oriental peoples have met, and they have solved it in their way. We may never adopt particular methods, but we can profit vastly by their experience. With the increase of personal wants in recent time, the newer countries may never reach such density of population as have Japan and China; but we must nevertheless learn the first lesson in the conservation of natural resources, which are the resources of the land. This is the message that Professor King brought home from the East.
这本关于农业的书应该能有效地增进东西方之间的理解。如果能像金教授所建议的那样，就这些主题进行礼节上的交流和探讨，并促进体育、外交和商业方面的交流，那么双方的普通生产者将受益匪浅；而友好关系的成果也将是不可估量的。
This book on agriculture should have good effect in establishing understanding between the West and the East. If there could be such an interchange of courtesies and inquiries on these themes as is suggested by Professor King, as well as the interchange of athletics and diplomacy and commerce, the common productive people on both sides should gain much that they could use; and the results in amity should be incalculable.
金教授未能在世时写下《中国和日本向世界传递的信息》这本总结性著作，实属不幸。这本该是他关于东方研究的一份细致而有力的总结。然而，就在这部著作即将付印之际，他却突然被召去继续漫长的旅程，他的研究之旅戛然而止。但他留给我们一份新的文献，补充了他关于土壤以及物理学和仪器在农业中应用的经典著作。他所触及的一切，都为他带来了启迪。
It is a misfortune that Professor King could not have lived to write the concluding “Message of China and Japan to the World.” It would have been a careful and forceful summary of his study of eastern conditions. At the moment when the work was going to the printer, he was called suddenly to the endless journey and his travel here was left incomplete. But he bequeathed us a new piece of literature, to add to his standard writings on soils and on the applications of physics and devices to agriculture. Whatever he touched he illuminated.
LH贝利。
L. H. BAILEY.
内容
CONTENTS
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章 CHAPTER | ||
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| 中日两国向世界发表信息. MESSAGE OF CHINA AND JAPAN TO THE WORLD. | |
插图列表
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
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不。 No. | |
Equipment for soil studies, Imperial Agr. Experiment Station, Tokyo, Japan | |
四十世纪的农民
FARMERS OF
FORTY CENTURIES
中国、韩国和日本的有机农业
ORGANIC FARMING IN
CHINA, KOREA, AND JAPAN
介绍。
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___________
需要先做些引言，以便读者更好地理解下文关于中国、韩国和日本农业实践和习俗的内容。需要牢记的是，如今构成、主导和决定西方国家农业及其他工业运作特征的那些重要因素，在一百年前对西方国家而言是无法实现的，而在此之前，对所有人来说都是如此。
A word of introduction is needed to place the reader at the best view point from which to consider what is said in the following pages regarding the agricultural practices and customs of China, Korea and Japan. It should be borne in mind that the great factors which today characterize, dominate and determine the agricultural and other industrial operations of western nations were physical impossibilities to them one hundred years ago, and until then had been so to all people.
还应该注意到，美国目前是一个人口稀少的国家，广泛分布在一片广阔的处女地上，每个男人、女人和孩子只有超过二十英亩的土地来维持生计，而那些人们正在耕种了三千多年的田地里辛苦劳作，每人只有勉强超过两英亩的土地，*其中一半以上是不可耕种的山地。
It should be observed, too, that the United States as yet is a nation of but few people widely scattered over a broad virgin land with more than twenty acres to the support of every man, woman and child, while the people whose practices are to be considered are toiling in fields tilled more than three thousand years and who have scarcely more than two acres per capita,* more than one-half of which is uncultivable mountain land.
再者，大量饲料和矿物肥料运往西欧和美国东部的时间还不到一个世纪，而这种大规模的运输在中国、朝鲜或日本根本无法维持土壤肥力，在欧洲和美国也不可能无限期地持续下去。这些输入暂时使得我们现代污水处理系统和其他不完善的耕作方式造成的植物养分浪费尚可容忍；但蒙古民族却把所有这些城市和乡村的废弃物，以及许多其他我们忽视的、对农业至关重要的废弃物，都用于自己的田地。
Again, the great movement of cargoes of feeding stuffs and mineral fertilizers to western Europe and to the eastern United States began less than a century ago and has never been possible as a means of maintaining soil fertility in China, Korea or Japan, nor can it be continued indefinitely in either Europe or America. These importations are for the time making tolerable the waste of plant food materials through our modern systems of sewage disposal and other faulty practices; but the Mongolian races have held all such wastes, both urban and rural, and many others which we ignore, sacred to agriculture, applying them to their fields.
我们要考虑一个由大约五亿人组成的充满活力的民族的一些实践，他们拥有未受损害的遗产，并随着四千年来的势头不断前进；这个民族道德高尚、智力超群、机械能力强，正在觉醒，利用近年来科学和发明为西方国家带来的所有可能性；这个民族长期以来热爱和平，但如果被迫自卫，他们能够并且愿意战斗。
We are to consider some of the practices of a virile race of some five hundred millions of people who have an unimpaired inheritance moving with the momentum acquired through four thousand years; a people morally and intellectually strong, mechanically capable, who are awakening to a utilization of all the possibilities which science and invention during recent years have brought to western nations; and a people who have long dearly loved peace but who can and will fight in self defense if compelled to do so.
我们一直渴望与中国和日本的农民面对面交流；走进他们的田野，观察他们历经数百年磨砺和经验积累而形成的耕作方法、器具和实践，从而学习这些世界上最古老的农民。我们渴望了解，在经历了二三十个世纪之后，他们的土地如何能够产出足够的粮食，足以养活这三个国家如今如此稠密的人口。如今，我们终于有机会，几乎每天都能从中汲取知识，对眼前的条件和实践感到惊讶和震撼；我们了解到这些国家几个世纪以来以及现在仍在保护和利用自然资源的方式和程度，我们惊叹于他们从田地中获得的丰厚回报，我们惊叹于人类为了每天五美分的工资和食物，或者仅仅为了十五美分（美元）的工资（不含食物）而甘愿付出的高效劳动。
We had long desired to stand face to face with Chinese and Japanese farmers; to walk through their fields and to learn by seeing some of their methods, appliances and practices which centuries of stress and experience have led these oldest farmers in the world to adopt. We desired to learn how it is possible, after twenty and perhaps thirty or even forty centuries, for their soils to be made to produce sufficiently for the maintenance of such dense populations as are living now in these three countries. We have now had this opportunity and almost every day we were instructed, surprised and amazed at the conditions and practices which confronted us whichever way we turned; instructed in the ways and extent to which these nations for centuries have been and are conserving and utilizing their natural resources, surprised at the magnitude of the returns they are getting from their fields, and amazed at the amount of efficient human labor cheerfully given for a daily wage of five cents and their food, or for fifteen cents, United States currency, without food.
1907年，日本三个主要岛屿拥有4697.7万人口，依靠2万平方英里的耕地维持生活。这意味着每英亩土地上居住着超过三人，每平方英里土地上居住着2349人；然而，1907年日本的农产品进口总额却比人均农产品出口总额高出不到一美元。如果荷兰的耕地面积仅占其总面积的三分之一，那么1905年荷兰的人口密度，以此计算，还不到日本三个主要岛屿的三分之一。与此同时，日本每平方英里的耕地上饲养着 69 匹马和 56 头牛，几乎都是役畜，而 1900 年我们每平方英里的耕地上只饲养着 30 匹马和骡子，这些都是我们的役畜。
The three main islands of Japan in 1907 had a population of 46,977,003 maintained on 20,000 square miles of cultivated field. This is at the rate of more than three people to each acre, and of 2,349 to each square mile; and yet the total agricultural imports into Japan in 1907 exceeded the agricultural exports by less than one dollar per capita. If the cultivated land of Holland is estimated at but one-third of her total area, the density of her population in 1905 was, on this basis, less than one-third that of Japan in her three main islands. At the same time Japan is feeding 69 horses and 56 cattle, nearly all laboring animals, to each square mile of cultivated field, while we were feeding in 1900 but 30 horses and mules per same area, these being our laboring animals.
日本饲养着1650万只家禽，每平方英里825只，但几乎每三个人只拥有一只，作为粗粮的转化者。1900年，我们饲养着2.506亿只家禽，但每平方英里耕地只拥有387只，而每人却拥有超过3只。日本每平方英里只有13只猪、山羊和绵羊等粗粮转化者，每180人只拥有一只；而1900年，美国每平方英里改良农场饲养着95头牛、99只羊和72头猪，用于将草和粗粮转化为肉和奶。按照这个计算，每头牛应该相当于五头羊和五头猪，因为奶牛的转化能力很强。在此基础上，我们维持每平方英里超过 646 个日本单位的密度，每个男人、女人和孩子拥有超过 5 个这样的单位，而不是像日本那样每 180 人拥有一个这样的单位。
As coarse food transformers Japan was maintaining 16,500,000 domestic fowl, 825 per square mile, but only one for almost three of her people. We were maintaining, in 1900, 250,600,000 poultry, but only 387 per square mile of cultivated field and yet more than three for each person. Japan’s coarse food transformers in the form of swine, goats and sheep aggregated but 13 to the square mile and provided but one of these units for each 180 of her people; while in the United States in 1900 there were being maintained, as transformers of grass and coarse grain into meat and milk, 95 cattle, 99 sheep and 72 swine per each square mile of improved farms. In this reckoning each of the cattle should be counted as the equivalent of perhaps five of the sheep and swine, for the transforming power of the dairy cow is high. On this basis we are maintaining at the rate of more than 646 of the Japanese units per square mile, and more than five of these to every man, woman and child, instead of one to every 180 of the population, as is the case in Japan.
中国目前没有相应的准确统计数据，但在山东省，我们采访了一位农民，他家有12口人，饲养了一头驴、一头牛（均为畜牧牲畜）和两头猪，耕地面积2.5英亩，种植小麦、小米、红薯和豆类。这里的人口密度相当于每平方英里3072人、256头驴、256头牛和512头猪。在另一个例子中，农场面积为1.2/3英亩，农民家有10口人，饲养了一头驴和一头猪，因此这片农田每平方英里可容纳3840人、384头驴和384头猪，或者说，在我们一个40英亩的农场里，可以容纳240人、24头驴和24头猪，而我们的农民认为这个农场面积太小，不适合一个家庭居住。我们研究的七家中国农场的平均水平我们访问过的地方以及我们获得类似数据的地区，都表明这些土地的维持能力为每平方英里农田1783人、212头牛或驴和399头猪，即1995名消费者和399名粗粮加工者。这些关于中国的陈述严格代表了农村人口。1900年，美国农村人口密度为每平方英里改良农田61人，马和骡子30匹。1907年，日本农村人口密度为每平方英里1922人，马和牛合计125头。
Correspondingly accurate statistics are not accessible for China but in the Shantung province we talked with a farmer having 12 in his family and who kept one donkey, one cow, both exclusively laboring animals, and two pigs on 2.5 acres of cultivated land where he grew wheat, millet, sweet potatoes and beans. Here is a density of population equal to 3,072 people, 256 donkeys, 256 cattle and 512 swine per square mile. In another instance where the holding was one and two-thirds acres the farmer had 10 in his family and was maintaining one donkey and one pig, giving to this farm land a maintenance capacity of 3,840 people, 384 donkeys and 384 pigs to the square mile, or 240 people, 24 donkeys and 24 pigs to one of our forty-acre farms which our farmers regard too small for a single family. The average of seven Chinese holdings which we visited and where we obtained similar data indicates a maintenance capacity for those lands of 1,783 people, 212 cattle or donkeys and 399 swine,—1,995 consumers and 399 rough food transformers per square mile of farm land. These statements for China represent strictly rural populations. The rural population of the United States in 1900 was placed at the rate of 61 per square mile of improved farm land and there were 30 horses and mules. In Japan the rural population had a density in 1907 of 1,922 per square mile, and of horses and cattle together 125.
长江入海口的崇明岛面积为 270 平方英里，根据 1902 年官方人口普查，岛上人口密度为每平方英里 3,700 人，但岛上只有一座大城市，因此人口主要为农村人口。
The population of the large island of Chungming in the mouth of the Yangtse river, having an area of 270 square miles, possessed, according to the official census of 1902, a density of 3,700 per square mile and yet there was but one large city on the island, hence the population is largely rural.
如果能全面准确地记录下所有国家如何才能如此密集地依靠中国、韩国和日本的土地上的产品维持如此人口稠密的生存，这对所有国家而言都具有极其重要的工业、教育和社会意义。这一演变过程中的许多步骤、阶段和实践都已无可挽回地被埋葬于历史长河之中，但数百年前就已达到如此卓越的维持效率，并延续至今，且未曾出现任何明显的衰落，值得进行深入研究，现在正是进行研究的时机。我们正处于一个从孤立国家向世界性国家过渡的世纪之初，在这个世纪中，工业、教育和社会领域必然会发生深刻的调整，因此，开展这样的研究刻不容缓。现在正是每个国家相互学习、共同研究的时候，通过相互协商和合作，这些研究成果应该惠及所有相关国家，并本着使每个国家都成为世界进步中协调一致、互利互惠的组成部分的精神进行。
It could not be other than a matter of the highest industrial, educational and social importance to all nations if there might be brought to them a full and accurate account of all those conditions which have made it possible for such dense populations to be maintained so largely upon the products of Chinese, Korean and Japanese soils. Many of the steps, phases and practices through which this evolution has passed are irrevocably buried in the past but such remarkable maintenance efficiency attained centuries ago and projected into the present with little apparent decadence merits the most profound study and the time is fully ripe when it should be made. Living as we are in the morning of a century of transition from isolated to cosmopolitan national life when profound readjustments, industrial, educational and social, must result, such an investigation cannot be made too soon. It is high time for each nation to study the others and by mutual agreement and co-operative effort, the results of such studies should become available to all concerned, made so in the spirit that each should become coordinate and mutually helpful component factors in the world’s progress.
解决这一问题的一个非常恰当且极其有益的方法，并且对公民和国家都应互利互惠，那就是各国高等教育机构与其通过棒球队来交换礼遇，不如在国际协议框架下，选拔东西方最优秀的学生，在有能力的领导下，组织研究小组，每个小组都包含东西方文明的组成部分，其目的应该是研究特定的问题。这样一个由最有能力的年轻人精心策划和领导的运动，应该能够建立国际联系，传播重要的知识体系，这些知识将随着年轻人的成长而不断发展，最终为世界和平与进步做出巨大贡献。如果能够组织起类似本文所建议的某种广泛的国际合作计划，那么维护费用很可能可以通过从扩建海军的巨额资金中抽取必要的资金来满足，因为这些为了世界进步和世界和平而采取的措施，必定比增加战斗装备更有效、更经济。它将培养团结一致、公平交易的精神，而不是疏远和努力获取不友好优势的精神。
One very appropriate and immensely helpful means for attacking this problem, and which should prove mutually helpful to citizen and state, would be for the higher educational institutions of all nations, instead of exchanging courtesies through their baseball teams, to send select bodies of their best students under competent leadership and by international agreement, both east and west, organizing therefrom investigating bodies each containing components of the eastern and western civilization and whose purpose it should be to study specifically set problems. Such a movement well conceived and directed, manned by the most capable young men, should create an international acquaintance and spread broadcast a body of important knowledge which would develop as the young men mature and contribute immensely toward world peace and world progress. If some broad plan of international effort such as is here suggested were organized the expense of maintenance might well be met by diverting so much as is needful from the large sums set aside for the expansion of navies, for such steps as these, taken in the interests of world uplift and world peace, could not fail to be more efficacious and less expensive than increase in fighting equipment. It would cultivate the spirit of pulling together and of a square deal rather than one of holding aloof and of striving to gain unneighborly advantage.
许多因素和条件共同作用，使远东的农场和农民拥有较高的维护效率，其中一些因素可以简明扼要地阐述。中国、朝鲜和日本的人口稠密地区发展并维持着这些地区，就其对农业生产的影响而言，占据着极其有利的地理位置。中国南部的广州与古巴哈瓦那的纬度相同，而满洲的奉天和日本的本州北部则最北到纽约市、芝加哥和加利福尼亚州北部。美国主要位于北纬50度至30度之间，而这三个国家位于北纬40度至20度之间，约七百英里。更南的地方。这种地理位置的差异使他们的季节更长，从而可以设计出农业系统，在同一块土地上每年种植两季、三季甚至四季作物。在中国南方、台湾和日本部分地区，水稻种植两季；浙江省可能先种油菜、小麦、大麦、温莎豆或三叶草，仲夏时节再种棉花或水稻。在山东省，冬春两季种植小麦或大麦，夏天可能种植小米或小米、红薯、大豆或花生。在北纬 39° 的天津，与伊利诺伊州的辛辛那提、印第安纳波利斯和斯普林菲尔德纬度相同，我们采访了一位农民，他在小块土地上种完小麦后又种了一季洋葱，洋葱之后又种了卷心菜，这三种作物每英亩的收益为 163 美元黄金；还有一位在春季最早种植爱尔兰土豆，等它们长得小的时候就把它们卖掉，然后又种萝卜，萝卜和卷心菜一起种，这三种作物每英亩的收益为 203 美元。
Many factors and conditions conspire to give to the farms and farmers of the Far East their high maintenance efficiency and some of these may be succinctly stated. The portions of China, Korea and Japan where dense populations have developed and are being maintained occupy exceptionally favorable geographic positions so far as these influence agricultural production. Canton in the south of China has the latitude of Havana, Cuba, while Mukden in Manchuria, and northern Honshu in Japan are only as far north as New York city, Chicago and northen California, The United States lies mainly between 50 degrees and 30 degrees of latitude while these three countries lie between 40 degrees and 20 degrees, some seven hundred miles further south. This difference of position, giving them longer seasons, has made it possible for them to devise systems of agriculture whereby they grow two, three and even four crops on the same piece of ground each year. In southern China, in Formosa and in parts of Japan two crops of rice are grown; in the Chekiang province there may be a crop of rape, of wheat or barley or of Windsor beans or clover which is followed in midsummer by another of cotton or of rice. In the Shantung province wheat or barley in the winter and spring may be followed in summer by large or small millet, sweet potatoes, soy beans or peanuts. At Tientsin, 39° north, in the latitude of Cincinnati, Indianapolis, and Springfield, Illinois, we talked with a farmer who followed his crop of wheat on his small holding with one of onions and the onions with cabbage, realizing from the three crops at the rate of $163, gold, per acre; and with another who planted Irish potatoes at the earliest opportunity in the spring, marketing them when small, and following these with radishes, the radishes with cabbage, realizing from the three crops at the rate of $203 per acre.
近五亿人依靠着比美国改良农田面积还小的土地上的产品维生。沿着从芝加哥向南到墨西哥湾，再向西穿过堪萨斯州的线画一个正方形，将圈出一块比中国、韩国和日本的耕地面积还要大的土地，这块土地将养活我们目前五倍的人口。
Nearly 500,000,000 people are being maintained, chiefly upon the products of an area smaller than the improved farm lands of the United States. Complete a square on the lines drawn from Chicago southward to the Gulf and west-ward across Kansas, and there will be enclosed an area greater than the cultivated fields of China, Korea and Japan and from which five times our present population are fed.
这些国家的降雨量不仅比我们大西洋沿岸和墨西哥湾沿岸的各州还要多，而且更多地集中在夏季，因为夏季的作物产量可能最高。华南地区的降雨量约为80英寸，冬季降雨量很少；而我们南部各州的降雨量接近60英寸，6月至9月的降雨量不到全年的一半。从苏必利尔湖到德克萨斯州中部的一条线，年降雨量约为30英寸，但其中，只有16英寸的降雨量发生在5月至9月之间；而在中国山东省，年降雨量略高于24英寸，其中17英寸的降雨量发生在指定月份，且大部分集中在7月和8月。如果说在最佳耕作方式下，且没有渗漏水分流失的情况下，我国大多数农作物每成熟一吨干物质需要300至600吨水，那么不难理解，适时获得适量的可用水分，是任何土壤保持高维持能力的主要因素之一，因此，在远东地区，通过集约化耕作，土壤能够获得高收益。
The rainfall in these countries is not only larger than that even in our Atlantic and Gulf states, but it falls more exclusively during the summer season when its efficiency in crop production may be highest. South China has a rainfall of some 80 inches with little of it during the winter, while in our southern states the rainfall is nearer 60 inches with less than one-half of it between June and September. Along a line drawn from Lake Superior through central Texas the yearly precipitation is about 30 inches but only 16 inches of this falls during the months May to September; while in the Shantung province, China, with an annual rainfall of little more than 24 inches, 17 of these fall during the months designated and most of this in July and August. When it is stated that under the best tillage and with no loss of water through percolation, most of our agricultural" crops require 300 to 600 tons of water for each ton of dry substance brought to maturity, it can be readily understood that the right amount of available moisture, coming at the proper time, must be one of the prime factors of a high maintenance capacity for any soil, and hence that in the Far East, with their intensive methods, it is possible to make their soils yield large returns.
这三个国家选择大米和小米作为主要粮食作物，并发展出农业系统以最大限度地利用这些作物，对我们来说是了不起的，表明他们掌握了基本原理和原则，这可能会引起西方国家停下来反思。
The selection of rice and of the millets as the great staple food crops of these three nations, and the systems agriculture they have evolved to realize the most from them, are to us remarkable and indicate a grasp of essentials and principles which may well cause western nations to pause and reflect.
尽管这些国家雨量充沛，但每个国家都选择了一种作物，这种作物不仅能几乎充分利用降水，还能利用邻近不宜耕种山区的大量径流。凡是适合种植水稻的地方，都会种植水稻。在日本的三个主要岛屿上，56%的耕地（11000平方英里）用于种植水稻，从移栽到收获季节，土地都保持在水下，之后，土地会被晾干，在一年中其他时间，只要季节允许，就可以种植旱地作物。
Notwithstanding the large and favorable rainfall of these countries, each of the nations have selected the one crop which permits them to utilize not only practically the entire amount of rain which falls upon their fields, but in addition enormous volumes of the run-off from adjacent uncultivable mountain country. Wherever paddy fields are practicable there rice is grown. In the three main islands of Japan 56 per cent of the cultivated fields, 11,000 square miles, is laid out for rice growing and is maintained under water from transplanting to near harvest time, after which the land is allowed to dry, to be devoted to dry land crops during the balance of the year, where the season permits.
任何研究过远东农耕方法的人都会发现，几百年前，这些人就已经认识到水在农作物生产中的重要性，这是其他民族所未曾有过的。他们让环境适应农作物，让农作物适应环境，直到水稻成为一种能够承受最密集施肥的谷物，同时确保在干旱和洪涝条件下都能获得最高产量。西方国家在所有湿润气候条件下的做法是，无论我们施肥多么充分、多么高效，大多数年份的产量都会因缺水或缺水而下降。
To anyone who studies the agricultural methods of the Far East in the field it is evident that these people, centuries ago, came to appreciate the value of water in crop production as no other nations have. They have adapted conditions to crops and crops to conditions until with rice they have a cereal which permits the most intense fertilization and at the same time the ensuring of maximum yields against both drought and flood. With the practice of western nations in all humid climates, no matter how completely and highly we fertilize, in more years than not yields are reduced by a deficiency or an excess of water.
无论是文字还是地图，都难以准确描述那些主要为稻作农业做出贡献的渠系系统之规模。保守估计，中国的运河总里程足足有20万英里，而中国、韩国和日本的运河总里程可能比美国的铁路里程还要多。仅中国每年的水稻种植面积就与美国小麦种植面积相当，其年产量是我们小麦年产量的两倍多，甚至可能是三倍。然而，整个稻田每年至少还会种植一种，有时甚至是两种其他作物。
It is difficult to convey, by word or map, an adequate conception of the magnitude of the systems of canalization which contribute primarily to rice culture. A conservative estimate would place the miles of canals in China at fully 200,000 and there are probably more miles of canal in China, Korea and Japan than there are miles of railroad in the United States. China alone has as many acres in rice each year as the United States has in wheat and her annual product is more than double and probably threefold our annual wheat crop, and yet the whole of the rice area produces at least one and sometimes two other crops each year.
在缺乏灌溉水源的地方，人们选择速熟耐旱的黍作为主要粮食作物，并几乎普遍采用丘陵或条播机进行中耕，从而采用了几个世纪前使用土壤覆盖物保持土壤水分的方法。这些做法使这些民族在干旱季节和降雨量少的地方获得了最大的收益。黍在炎热的夏季气候中茁壮成长；在土壤水分含量降至最低限度时，它们也能存活；在暴雨来临时，它们也能茁壮成长。因此，我们发现，在远东地区，降雨量比美国更多，分布也更均匀，季节也更温暖、更长，而这些民族凭借非凡的智慧，将灌溉和旱作相结合，其规模和强度远远超出了我们人类的想象，以便维持其稠密的人口。
The selection of the quick-maturing, drought-resisting millets as the great staple food crops to be grown wherever water is not available for irrigation, and the almost universal planting in hills or drills, permitting intertillage, thus adopting centuries ago the utilization of earth mulches in conserving soil moisture, has enabled these people to secure maximum returns in seasons of drought and where the rainfall is small. The millets thrive in the hot summer climates; they survive when the available soil moisture is reduced to a low limit, and they grow vigorously when the heavy rains come. Thus we find in the Far East, with more rainfall and a better distribution of it than occurs in the United States, and with warmer, longer seasons, that these people have with rare wisdom combined both irrigation and dry farming methods to an extent and with an intensity far beyond anything our people have ever dreamed, in order that they might maintain their dense populations.
尽管这些国家的土壤天然比一般国家深厚，本身就肥沃且持久，但明智合理的施肥方法却随处可见实践中，矿物肥料的使用一直很普遍；但直到近年来，只有日本才开始使用矿物商业肥料。然而，几个世纪以来，所有耕地，包括邻近的丘陵、山坡、运河、溪流和海洋，都尽其所能地为耕地施肥，这些贡献总体上是巨大的。在中国、朝鲜和日本，除人迹罕至的部分外，其广阔的山地和丘陵地带长期以来都被充分利用，用作燃料、木材和用于绿肥和堆肥的牧草；而几乎所有国内使用的燃料和木材的灰烬最终都会作为肥料进入田地。
Notwithstanding the fact that in each of these countries the soils are naturally more than ordinarily deep, inherently fertile and enduring, judicious and rational methods of fertilization are everywhere practiced; but not until recent years, and only in Japan, have mineral commercial fertilizers been used. For centuries, however, all cultivated lands, including adjacent hill and mountain sides, the canals, streams and the sea have been made to contribute what they could toward the fertilization of cultivated fields and these contributions in the aggregate have been large. In China, in Korea and in Japan all but the inaccessible portions of their vast extent of mountain and hill lands have long been taxed to their full capacity for fuel, lumber and herbage for green manure and compost material; and the ash of practically all of the fuel and of all of the lumber used at home finds its way ultimately to the fields as fertilizer.
在中国，大量的运河淤泥被施用于田地，有时每英亩甚至高达70吨以上。同样，在没有运河的地方，土壤和底土都会被运到村庄，在需要的时候，这些淤泥会耗费大量劳动力与有机垃圾一起堆肥，之后通常会干燥粉碎，再运回田地用作自制肥料。各种人畜粪便都被虔诚地保存起来，并以远超我们自身的方式施用于田地。日本农业局的统计数据显示，1908年日本人粪尿总量为23950295吨，相当于每英亩耕地1.75吨。 1908年，上海国际租界将每年清晨进入住宅和公共场所清理粪便的特权出售给一位中国承包商，他因此以7.8万吨粪便换取了超过3.1万美元的黄金。所有这些我们不仅扔掉，还为此花费了更多金钱。
In China enormous quantities of canal mud are applied to the fields, sometimes at the rate of even 70 and more tons per acre. So, too, where there are no canals, both soil and subsoil are carried into the villages and there between the intervals when needed they are, at the expense of great labor, composted with organic refuse and often afterwards dried and pulverized before being carried back and used on the fields as home-made fertilizers. Manure of all kinds, human and animal, is religiously saved and applied to the fields in a manner which secures an efficiency far above our own practices. Statistics obtained through the Bureau of Agriculture, Japan, place the amount of human waste in that country in 1908 at 23,950,295 tons, or 1.75 tons per acre of her cultivated land. The International Concession of the city of Shanghai, in 1908, sold to a Chinese contractor the privilege of entering residences and public places early in the morning of each day in the year and removing the night soil, receiving therefor more than $31,000, gold, for 78,000 tons of waste. All of this we not only throw away but expend much larger sums in doing so.
日本每年生产的肥料，定期配制并施用于土地，每英亩耕地的产量超过 4.5 吨，不包括商业购买肥料。6月18日，我们在山海关和满洲的奉天之间经过了数千吨最近被运到田里并堆放在地里的干燥高硝化堆肥土，等待着“施肥给庄稼”。
Japan’s production of fertilizing material, regularly prepared and applied to the land annually, amounts to more than 4.5 tons per acre of cultivated field exclusive of the commercial fertilizers purchased. Between Shanhaikwan and Mukden in Manchuria we passed, on June 18th, thousands of tons of the dry highly nitrified compost soil recently carried into the fields and laid down in piles where it was waiting to be “fed to the crops.”
直到1888年，经过长达三十多年的漫长争论，在欧洲最优秀的科学家的共同努力下，人们才最终承认，豆科植物作为低等生物的宿主，在其根部直接吸收空气中的氮，并通过腐烂过程将其返回，从而对土壤氮的维持负有主要责任。但数百年的实践让远东的农民认识到，种植和使用豆科作物对于保持土壤肥力至关重要，因此在这三个国家，为了土壤肥沃，广泛地轮作豆科植物和其他作物，是他们古老而固定的做法之一。
It was not until 1888, and then after a prolonged war of more than thirty years, generaled by the best scientists of all Europe, that it was finally conceded as demonstrated that leguminous plants acting as hosts for lower organisms living on their roots are largely responsible for the maintenance of soil nitrogen, drawing it directly from the air to which it is returned through the processes of decay. But centuries of practice had taught the Far East farmers that the culture and use of these crops are essential to enduring fertility, and so in each of the three countries the growing of legumes in rotation with other crops very extensively for the express purpose of fertilizing the soil is one of their old, fixed practices.
水稻收割前或收割后，田里通常会播种“三叶草”（Astragalus sinicus），让它生长到下次移栽时，然后直接翻耕，或者更常见的是，沿着水渠堆放，同时用从渠底浸湿的软泥浸透。发酵二三十天后，再施用于田里。因此，这些我们认为无知的旧世界农民（也许是因为他们不像我们一样骑着双轮犁）早已将豆科植物纳入他们的轮作作物中，认为它们是不可或缺的，这的确是事实。
Just before, or immediately after the rice crop is harvested, fields are often sowed to “clover” (Astragalus sinicus) which is allowed to grow until near the next transplanting time when it is either turned under directly, or more often stacked along the canals and saturated while doing so with soft mud dipped from the bottom of the canal. After fermenting twenty or thirty days it is applied to the field. And so it is literally true that these old world farmers whom we regard as ignorant, perhaps because they do not ride sulky plows as we do, have long included legumes in their crop rotation, regarding them as indispensable.
时间是每个生命过程的函数，就像所有物理、化学和精神反应一样。农夫是一位工业生物学家，因此不得不调整自己的操作方式，以符合作物生长的时间要求。东方农民是比任何人都更节省时间的人。他充分利用了第一分钟、最后一分钟以及其间的所有时间。外国人指责中国人总是准时，从不焦躁，从不匆忙之中。这千真万确，之所以能够实现，是因为他们是一个面向未来、把握时机的民族。他们早就意识到，将有机物转化为植物所需的养分需要大量的时间。尽管他们是世界上有机物使用量最大的民族，但这些有机物中的大部分在施入田地之前，都要先与土壤或底土进行预消化，这耗费了大量的人力和劳动。但这实际上延长了他们的生长季，使他们能够采用一种原本不可能实现的复种制度。通过丘陵和行间种植并进行中耕，我们经常可以看到同一块田地同时生长着三种作物，但成熟度不同：一种即将收获；一种刚刚发芽；另一种正处于对土壤养分吸收最旺盛的阶段。通过这种做法，加上大量施肥和必要的补充灌溉，土壤能够在整个生长季充分发挥作用。
Time is a function of every life process as it is of every physical, chemical and mental reaction. The husbandman is an industrial biologist and as such is compelled to shape his operations so as to conform with the time requirements of his crops. The oriental farmer is a time economizer beyond all others. He utilizes the first and last minute and all that are between. The foreigner accuses the Chinaman of being always long on time, never in a fret, never in a hurry. This is quite true and made possible for the reason that they are a people who definitely set their faces toward the future and lead time by the forelock. They have long realized that much time is required to transform organic matter into forms available for plant food and although they are the heaviest users in the world, the largest portion of this organic matter is predigested with soil or subsoil before it is applied to their fields, and at an enormous cost of human time and labor, but it practically lengthens their growing season and enables them to adopt a system of multiple cropping which would not otherwise be possible. By planting in hills and rows with intertillage it is very common to see three crops growing upon the same field at one time, but in different stages of maturity, one nearly ready to harvest; one just coming up, and the other at the stage when it is drawing most heavily upon the soil. By such practice, with heavy fertilization, and by supplemental irrigation when needful, the soil is made to do full duty throughout the growing season.
尽管这些国家每年种植水稻的面积巨大，但所有稻米都种植在山坡上，每株稻穗都需移栽。这样做，除了人力之外，他们在很多方面都节省了开支，而人力是他们唯一多余的资源。通过彻底准备苗床、大量施肥并给予最细心的照料，他们能够在30到50天内在一英亩土地上种植出足够种植十英亩的稻米，与此同时，另外九英亩土地上的作物正在成熟、收割，田地也已准备好接收可供移栽的水稻。实际上，这段时间被延长到了他们的生长季节。
Then, notwithstanding the enormous acreage of rice planted each year in these countries, it is all set in hills and every spear is transplanted. Doing this, they save in many ways except in the matter of human labor, which is the one thing they have in excess. By thoroughly preparing the seed bed, fertilizing highly and giving the most careful attention, they are able to grow on one acre, during 30 to 50 days, enough plants to occupy ten acres and in the mean time on the other nine acres crops are maturing, being harvested and the fields being fitted to receive the rice when it is ready for transplanting, and in effect this interval of time is added to their growing season.
丝绸文化是东方一项伟大的产业，从某种程度上来说，也是最令人瞩目的产业之一。它之所以引人注目，是因为它规模宏大；因为它似乎起源于至少公元前2700年的古老中国；因为它起源于对一种森林野生昆虫的驯化；因为它经历了4000多年的发展，如今已拥有价值百万美元的丝绸产品。被放置在我们的西海岸，并通过特别特快列车运往东部进行圣诞节贸易。
Silk culture is a great and, in some ways, one of the most remarkable industries of the Orient. Remarkable for its magnitude; for having had its birthplace apparently in oldest China at least 2700 years B. C.; for having been laid on the domestication of a wild insect of the woods; and for having lived through more than 4000 years, expanding until a million-dollar cargo of the product has been laid down on our western coast and rushed by special fast express to the east for the Christmas trade.
保守估计，中国每年的生丝产量为 1.2 亿磅，加上日本、朝鲜和满洲南部一小部分地区的产量，每年的生丝产量可能超过 1.5 亿磅，总价值约为 7 亿美元，与美国的小麦产量价值相当，但产出的麦田面积还不到我们麦田面积的八分之一。
A low estimate of China’s production of raw silk would be 120,000,000 pounds annually, and this with the output of Japan, Korea and a small area of southern Manchuria, would probably exceed 150,000,000 pounds annually, representing a total value of perhaps $700,000,000, quite equalling in value the wheat crop of the United States, but produced on less than one-eighth the area of our wheat fields.
在中国和日本，茶叶种植是这些国家的另一项重要产业，其在人民福祉中所发挥的重要作用，与养蚕业不相上下，甚至更胜一筹。毋庸置疑，这一产业的根基在于需要某种物质使开水变得可口可口。在这些国家，饮用开水已被普遍采用，作为一种个人可用且极其有效的防护措施，可以抵御迄今为止在任何人口稠密的国家都无法从饮用水中清除的致命病菌。
The cultivation of tea in. China and Japan is another of the great industries of these nations, taking rank with that of sericulture if not above it in the important part it plays in the welfare of the people. There is little reason to doubt that this industry has its foundation in the need of something to render boiled water palatable for drinking purposes. The drinking of boiled water is universally adopted in these countries as an individually available and thoroughly efficient safeguard against that class of deadly disease germs which thus far it has been impossible to exclude from the drinking water of any densely peopled country.
从迄今为止实施的最彻底的卫生措施的成功程度来判断，并考虑到随着人口增长必然会大大增加的固有困难，现代方法最终必然会在卫生效率方面失败，而且只有以某种方式才能确保绝对安全，这种方式的效果与蒙古民族很久以前采用的煮沸饮用水相同。
Judged by the success of the most thorough sanitary measures thus far instituted, and taking into consideration the inherent difficulties which must increase enormously with increasing populations, it appears inevitable that modern methods must ultimately fail in sanitary efficiency and that absolute safety can be secured only in some manner having the equivalent effect of boiling drinking water, long ago adopted by the Mongolian races.
1907年，日本拥有124,482英亩的茶园，产出60,877,975磅的干茶。中国每年的干茶产量远高于日本，仅四川省每年就有40,000,000磅的干茶销往西藏；而直接出口到国外的干茶在1905年为176,027,255磅，1906年则为180,271,000磅。因此，中国每年的出口量肯定超过2亿磅，年总产量是干茶产量的两倍多。
In the year 1907 Japan had 124,482 acres of land in tea plantations, producing 60,877,975 pounds of cured tea. In China the volume annually produced is much larger than that of Japan, 40,000,000 pounds going annually to Tibet alone from the Szechwan province; and the direct export to foreign countries was, in 1905, 176,027,255 pounds, and in 1906 it was 180,271,000, so that their annual export must exceed 200,000,000 pounds with a total annual output more than double this amount of cured tea.
但是，在这些国家实现高维护效率方面，最重要的因素或许是工业阶级被迫调整自己以适应的生活水平，加上他们卓越的工业精神和在工作和生活的各个方面实行的最严格的节约。
But above any other factor, and perhaps greater than all of them combined in contributing to the high maintenance efficiency attained in these countries must be placed the standard of living to which the industrial classes have been compelled to adjust themselves, combined with their remarkable industry and with the most intense economy they practice along every line of effort and of living.
几乎每一寸土地都被用来提供食物、燃料或织物。所有可以食用的物质都可以用来喂养人类或家畜。任何不能食用或穿着的物质都可以用来做燃料。身体的废物、燃料的废物以及用过的织物，除了其他用途外，都会被运回田间；在运回田间之前，它们会被储存起来以防风雨侵蚀，经过精心的构思和精心调配，并经过一月、三个月甚至六个月的耐心耕耘，最终被加工成最有效的形态，用作土壤的肥料或作物的饲料。对于这些勤劳的阶层来说，这似乎是一条黄金法则，即使不是黄金法则，也是一条不可侵犯的法则：只要多劳动一小时或一天，哪怕能带来比现在多一点点的回报，就应该给予，无论是下雨天还是烈日炎炎，都不能取消或推迟这项义务的履行。
Almost every foot of land is made to contribute material for food, fuel or fabric. Everything which can be made edible serves as food for man or domestic animals. Whatever cannot be eaten or worn is used for fuel. The wastes of the body, of fuel and of fabric worn beyond other use are taken back to the field; before doing so they are housed against waste from weather, compounded with intelligence and forethought and patiently labored with through one, three or even six months, to bring them into the most efficient form to serve as manure for the soil or as feed for the crop. It seems to be a golden rule with these industrial classes, or if not golden, then an inviolable one, that whenever an extra hour or day of labor can promise even a little larger return then that shall be given, and neither a rainy day nor the hottest sunshine shall be permitted to cancel the obligation or defer its execution.
*由于混淆了耕地面积和总面积，第一版中这个数字被错误地表示为一英亩。
*This figure was wrongly stated in the first edition, as one acre, owing to a mistake in confusing the area of cultivated land with total area.
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我们从美国西雅图出发，沿北线航行至中国上海，于2月2日下午1点抵达横滨，3月1日抵达上海。在整个旅程中，我们的目标是密切关注田间和作物问题，并通过翻译或其他方式与农民、园丁和果农进行面对面交流；我们经常不辞辛劳，在不同的季节，两次、三次甚至更多次地访问同一块田地或同一地区，以观察同一栽培或施肥方法在不同阶段的演变，因为这些方法会随着季节的变化而变化。
We left the United States from Seattle for Shanghai, China, sailing by the northern route, at one P. M. February second, reaching Yokohama February 19th and Shanghai, March 1st. It was our aim throughout the journey to keep in close contact with the field and crop problems and to converse personally, through interpreters or otherwise, with the farmers, gardeners and fruit growers themselves; and we have taken pains in many cases to visit the same fields or the same region two, three or more times at different intervals during the season in order to observe different phases of the same cultural or fertilization methods as these changed or varied with the season.
我们第一次近距离观察日本是在2月19日清晨，当时我们正飞过距离两年前太平洋客轮“达科他号”在光天化日之下搁浅沉没的地点约三英里的地方。高耸的圆形山丘既没有像16天前离开的华盛顿号和温哥华号那样被浓密的深绿色森林所覆盖，也没有像六月爱尔兰的山丘那样，向饱览了波涛汹涌的灰色海洋的乘客们投下无与伦比的问候。山丘上既没有茂密的森林，甚至也没有灌木和茂密的草本植物，土壤深厚，既没有耕种，也没有严重的侵蚀，但周围却有着宜人的气候条件，这让我们感到非常惊讶。
Our first near view of Japan came in the early morning of February 19th when passing some three miles off the point where the Pacific passenger steamer Dakota was beached and wrecked in broad daylight without loss of life two years ago. The high rounded hills were clothed neither in the dense dark forest green of Washington and Vancouver, left sixteen days before, nor yet in the brilliant emerald such as Ireland’s hills in June fling in unparalleled greeting to passengers surfeited with the dull grey of the rolling ocean. This lack of strong forest growth and even of shrubs and heavy herbage on hills covered with deep soil, neither cultivated nor suffering from serious erosion, yet surrounded by favorable climatic conditions, was our first great surprise.
绕过岬角向南，向北转入深海湾后，情况也大体相似。十点钟，我们停靠在浦贺附近，佩里准将于 1853 年 7 月 8 日在此抛锚，向幕府将军菲尔莫尔总统致以信函。这封信打开了日本与世界贸易的大门，并希望能够为日本人民带来更好的发展机会，使他们能够沿着更高的方向发展，让生活更加值得过。日本人民几个世纪以来继承下来的勤俭节约的习惯已深深地根植于此。
To the southward around the point, after turning northward into the deep bay, similar conditions prevailed, and at ten o’clock we stood off Uraga where Commodore Perry anchored on July 8th, 1853, bearing to the Shogun President Fillmore’s letter which opened the doors of Japan to the commerce of the world and, it is to be hoped brought to her people, with their habits of frugality and industry so indelibly fixed by centuries of inheritance, better opportunities for development along those higher lines destined to make life still more worth living.
当土佐马拉号驶近横滨码头时，天正下着倾盆大雨，船上有一支像鲁滨逊漂流记中那样的军队，如图1所示，随时准备以一、二、三或五美分的价格把你和你的家人送到海关及更远的地方。当我们改变航程，在西雅图走下跳板时，情况发生了强烈的对比，那里没有人想搬行李。
As the Tosa Mara drew alongside the pier at Yokohama it was raining hard and this had attired an army after the manner of Robinson Crusoe, dressed as seen in Fig. 1, ready to carry you and yours to the Customs house and beyond for one, two, three or five cents. Strong was the contrast when the journey was reversed and we descended the gang plank at Seattle, where no one sought the opportunity of moving baggage.
土佐丸号船长哈里森好心通过无线电呼叫翻译来迎接轮船，这样就可以充分利用在横滨停留的整个时间，游览延伸至东京的十八英里平原上的田野和花园，电车和铁路线穿过平原，每条线路都运行着多列火车，并经常停靠；因此，几乎可以从任何地点轻松抵达这个肥沃而耕作良好的地区。
Through the kindness of Captain Harrison of the Tosa Maru in calling an interpreter by wireless to meet the steamer, it was possible to utilize the entire interval of stop in Yokohama to the best advantage in the fields and gardens spread over the eighteen miles of plain extending to Tokyo, traversed by both electric tram and railway lines, each running many trains making frequent stops; so that this wonderfully fertile and highly tilled district could be readily and easily reached at almost any point.
我们离开家时，正值一场难忘的暴风雪，夹杂着雨雪，导致美国大部分地区的电报和电话线路中断。我们眺望了阿留申群岛，沿途却丝毫没有看到任何温暖的土地和碧绿的田野。因此，当我们发现黄包车夫光着脚，大腿裸露着身体时，我们大吃一惊。更让我们吃惊的是，还没出城，电车就穿梭在长满小麦、大麦、洋葱、胡萝卜、卷心菜和其他蔬菜的田野和菜园之间。我们飞驰在东方，车外的一切都与家乡如此陌生，如此不同，这让我们感到震惊，如同晴空万里中一道闪电划破长空。
We had left home in a memorable storm of snow, sleet and rain which cut out of service telegraph and telephone lines over a large part of the United States; we had sighted the Aleutian Islands, seeing and feeling nothing on the way which could suggest a warm soil and green fields, hence our surprise was great to find the jinricksha men with bare feet and legs naked to the thighs, and greater still when we found, before we were outside the city limits, that the electric tram was running between fields and gardens green with wheat, barley, onions, carrots, cabbage and other vegetables. We were rushing through the Orient with everything outside the car so strange and different from home that the shock came like a bolt of lightning out of a clear sky.
图1. 雨天服装，日本人穿着，也是朝鲜和中国在类似条件下使用的典型服装。图中显示的是一群日本稻田工人和他们最常用的工具。
Fig. 1.—Rainy weather costume, as worn in Japan and typical of those used under similar conditions in both Korea and China. The picture shows a group of Japanese rice field laborers with their most common tools.
车里除了我和另外一个人以外，其他男人都在抽烟，而那个人则用一个类似雪茄嘴的象牙烟嘴吸入樟脑。几个女人厌倦了这种异国式的坐姿，便脱掉了——我不能说是脱掉了——她们的鞋子，面朝窗户坐下，脚趾交叉放在身后。街道被雨水冲刷得泥泞不堪，每个日本人都穿着雨天穿的木屐，鞋底通过两个交叉的木块离地面三到四英寸，就像图 2中看到的那样。一位母亲背着婴儿和一个 16 岁的女儿上了车。尽管穿着高跟鞋，但这位母亲的一只脚趾还是陷进了泥里。她坐下后，把脚脱了下来。无需任何明显的指示，这位有着黑眼睛、油光发亮、红嘴唇的漂亮姑娘，脸颊涂成玫瑰色，捡起了鞋子，从袖子里的大口袋里掏出一张白色薄纸，熟练地擦拭了原本一尘不染的白布袜子，然后擦拭了鞋子，将纸扔在地板上，看了看手指是否干净，然后将鞋子放在母亲的脚边，鞋子毫不费力地、看也不看一眼就到了原处。
In the car every man except myself and one other was smoking tobacco and that other was inhaling camphor through an ivory mouthpiece resembling a cigar holder closed at the end. Several women, tiring of sitting foreign style, slipped off—I cannot say out of—their shoes and sat facing the windows, with toes crossed behind them on the seat. The streets were muddy from the rain and everybody Japanese was on rainy-day wooden shoes, the soles carried three to four inches above the ground by two cross blocks, in the manner seen in Fig. 2. A mother, with baby on her back and a daughter of sixteen years came into the car. Notwithstanding her high shoes the mother had dipped one toe into the mud. Seated, she slipped her foot off. Without evident instructions the pretty black-eyed, glossy-haired, red-lipped lass, with cheeks made rosy, picked up the shoe, withdrew a piece of white tissue paper from the great pocket in her sleeve, deftly cleaned the otherwise spotless white cloth sock and then the shoe, threw the paper on the floor, looked to see that her fingers were not soiled, then set the shoe at her mother’s foot, which found its place without effort or glance.
这里的一切都显得如此奇特，场景瞬息万变，如同梦境般狂野。现在，人们正在为一座桥梁的地基打桩。桩子上方立着一个三脚架，上面挂着一个滑轮。滑轮上挂着一根来自重锤的绳索，绳索的末端有十根绳索延伸到地面。三脚架底部围成一圈，站着十个身手敏捷的日本妇女。她们是起重机械。她们以完美的节奏吟唱，拖拉、踏步，放下重物，再次升起，每分钟敲击的次数越多，锤子就越重，落下的重量也就越大。我们到达上海时，看到打桩机在上面工作。十四个中国男人站在一个升高的平台上，每人手里都拿着一根绳索，绳索从手直接穿过下方有重物。一阵齐声的、半音乐性的吟唱，略带调子以缓解单调，使所有人保持团结。这台机器的运行成本是多少？每人每天13美分，包括燃料和润滑油，两者都是自动运行的。另外还有两个人管理桩，两个人指挥锤子，十八个人操作设备。每天2.34美元包括燃料、监督和维修费用。几乎没有资本投入机械。人手充足，绰绰有余。燃料是冰，不用盐煮熟，煮熟后煮至硬，再加一点猪肉或鱼，再用腌白菜或萝卜腌制，再加两三种或四十多种其他蔬菜佐料。这些人强壮快乐吗？他们当然强壮。他们的收入稳步增长，数百万美元，当你站在那里看着他们工作时，他们的脸上常常挂着笑容，流露出一种满足和满足的神情。
Everything here was strange and the scenes shifted with the speed of the wildest dream. Now it was driving piles for the foundation of a bridge. A tripod of poles was erected above the pile and from it hung a pulley. Over the pulley passed a rope from the driving weight and from its end at the pulley ten cords extended to the ground. In a circle at the foot of the tripod stood ten agile Japanese women. They were the hoisting engine. They chanted in perfect rhythm, hauled and stepped, dropped the weight and hoisted again, making up for heavier hammer and higher drop by more blows per minute. When we reached Shanghai we saw the pile driver being worked from above. Fourteen Chinese men stood upon a raised staging, each with a separate cord passing direct from the hand to the weight below. A concerted, half-musical chant, modulated to relieve monotony, kept all hands together. What did the operation of this machine cost? Thirteen cents, gold, per man per day, which covered fuel and lubricant, both automatically served. Two additional men managed the piles, two directed the hammer, eighteen manned the outfit. Two dollars and thirty-four cents per day covered fuel, superintendence and repairs, There was almost no capital invested in machinery. Men were plenty and to spare. Eice was the fuel, cooked without salt, boiled stiff, reenforced with a bit of pork or fish, appetized with salted cabbage or turnip and perhaps two or three of forty and more other vegetable relishes. And are these men strong and happy? They certainly were strong. They are steadily increasing their millions, and as one stood and watched them at their work their faces were often wreathed in smiles and wore what seemed a look of satisfaction and contentment.
图 2. 穿着雨天木鞋的女孩，以日本最常见的方式抱着和逗弄孩子。
Fig. 2.—Girl on rainy-day wooden shoes, carrying and entertaining child in the way most common in Japan.
我们从横滨到东京的路上，无论是在城里还是在通往田野的道路上，清晨出发，最常见的景象莫过于人扛着粪车，牲畜背着粪车，但最常见的是用人力拉的结实的推车，推车上装着六到十个密封的木箱，每个木箱可容纳四十磅、六十磅甚至更多。奇怪的是，即使在日本、中国或韩国最大、最古老的城市里，如今似乎也没有，而且似乎从未有过西方国家如今使用的液压污水处理系统。虽然有设施可以排出雨水，但当我问我的翻译，在冬季，这座城市是否习惯将粪便排入大海，作为一种更快捷、更便宜的处理方式时，他迅速而尖锐地回答道：“不，那样太浪费了。我们从来不扔。那样太值钱了。”在火车站等公共场所，人们采取措施节约，而不是浪费，甚至在乡村道路沿线，也会设置屏幕邀请旅行者停车，主要是为了车主的利益，而不是为了个人的方便。
Among the most common sights on our rides from Yokohama to Tokyo, both within the city and along the roads leading to the fields, starting early in the morning, were the loads of night soil carried on the shoulders of men and on the backs of animals, but most commonly on strong carts drawn by men, bearing six to ten tightly covered wooden containers holding forty, sixty or more pounds each. Strange as it may seem, there are not today and apparently never have been, even in the largest and oldest cities of Japan, China or Korea, anything corresponding to the hydraulic systems of sewage disposal used now by western nations. Provision is made for the removal of storm waters but when I asked my interpreter if it was not the custom of the city during the winter months to discharge its night soil into the sea, as a quicker and cheaper mode of disposal, his reply came quick and sharp, “No, that would be waste. We throw nothing away. It is worth too much money.” In such public places as railway stations provision is made for saving, not for wasting, and even along the country roads screens invite the traveler to stop, primarily for profit to the owner, more than for personal convenience.
在横滨和东京之间，沿着电车线路，离海岸不远的地方，二月份时，随处可见许多长长的、栅栏般高的屏风，它们东西延伸，向北倾斜。这些屏风由稻草搭建而成，紧紧地捆在一起，用竹竿支撑，竹竿则被固定在地上的木桩上。这些屏风平行排列，数量有五到十个或更多，长达数百英尺，用于晾晒各种娇嫩的海藻，它们的摆放方式如图3所示。
Between Yokohama and Tokyo, along the electric car line and not far distant from the seashore, there were to be seen in February very many long, fence-high screens extending east and west, strongly inclined to the north, and built out of rice straw, closely tied together and supported on bamboo poles carried upon posts of wood set in the ground. These screens, set in parallel series of five to ten or more in number and several hundred feet long, were used for the purpose of drying varieties of delicate seaweed, these being spread out in the manner shown in Fig. 3.
图3——用于食用的海藻干燥方法。较大的浅色图案上的小黑方块是海藻。图中可见的叉子将方形席子固定在长屏风上，其中六个屏风并联排列。
Fig. 3.—Method of drying seaweed used for food. The small black squares on the larger light ones are the seaweed. The skewers seen pin the squares of matting against the long screens, six of which are shown in parallel series.
图 4. 浅海海底种植灌木丛的部分，可食用的海藻附着在其上并生长。
Fig. 4.—Section of shallow sea bottom planted to brushwood on which the edible seaweeds attach themselves and grow.
首先，将海藻铺在10英寸长、12英寸宽的草席上，形成一层7英寸长、8英寸宽的薄层。用木签将草席穿过帘子，使海藻直接暴露在阳光下。干燥后，将长方形的海藻捆成1英寸厚的捆，再切成两半，形成4英寸长、7英寸宽的小包，整齐地捆扎好后，就可以作为汤料出售或用于其他用途。
The seaweed is first spread upon separate ten by twelve inch straw mats, forming a thin layer seven by eight inches. These mats are held by means of wooden skewers forced through the body of the screen, exposing the seaweed to the direct sunshine. After becoming dry the rectangles of seaweed are piled in bundles an inch thick, cut once in two, forming packages four by seven inches, which are neatly tied and thus exposed for sale as soup stock and for other purposes.
为了从海洋中获取海藻，人们将小灌木和树枝种植在浅水底部，如图4所示。海藻附着在这些树枝上，生长成熟后，再用手采集。通过这种养殖方式，人们在原本贫瘠的土地上种植了大量重要的粮食作物，供人们食用。
To obtain this seaweed from the ocean small shrubs and the limbs of trees are set up in the bottom of shallow water, as seen in Fig. 4. To these limbs the seaweeds become attached, grow to maturity and are then gathered by hand. By this method of culture large amounts of important food stuff are grown for the support of the people on areas otherwise wholly unproductive.
另一个乡村特色，最好地展现在二月份拍摄的照片中，是日本梨园的修剪方法。将树枝绑在高架的水平棚架上，棚架的高度应足够高，以便人们能够轻松直立行走，站在地面上也能轻松摘取果实。梨园由此形成大小不一的乔木，树木排列成梅花形，行距约十二英尺。竹竿架设在高处，用直径1.5至2.5英寸的竹竿支撑，并绑在竹竿上。图5展示了一个这样的梨园。
Another rural feature, best shown by photograph taken in February, is the method of training pear orchards in Japan, with their limbs tied down upon horizontal overhead trellises at a hight under which a man can readily walk erect and easily reach the fruit with the hand while standing upon the ground. Pear orchards thus form arbors of greater or less size, the trees being set in quincunx order about twelve feet apart in and between the rows. Bamboo poles are used overhead and these carried on posts of the same material 1.5 to 2.5 inches in diameter, to which they are tied. Such a pear orchard is shown in Fig. 5.
梨树的枝干被严格地捆扎在一个平面上，并将它们绑扎起来，修剪掉不需要的枝干。这样，下面的地面就完全被遮蔽了，每个梨子都触手可及。当需要保护果实免受昆虫侵害时，这非常方便，只需在每个梨子上绑上纸袋即可，如图6和图7所示。果园地面保持无杂草，并经常覆盖一层稻草或其他稻草，在日本，稻草广泛用于覆盖各种作物的地面。使用稻草时，稻草会从捆扎好的稻草中小心地一把一把地铺在地上，稻草保持平行，就像收割时一样。
The limbs of the pear trees are trained strictly in one plane, tying them down and pruning out those not desired. As a result the ground beneath is completely shaded and every pear is within reach, which is a great convenience when it becomes desirable to protect the fruit from insects, by tying paper bags over every pear as seen in Figs. 6 and 7. The orchard ground is kept free from weeds and not infrequently is covered with a layer of rice or other straw, extensively used in Japan as a ground cover with various crops and when so used is carefully laid in handfuls from bundles, the straws being kept parallel as when harvested.
图 5。俯视一片广阔的梨园，其枝干水平延伸，形成一个凉亭，在长叶时完全遮蔽地面，并将所有果实放在伸手可及的地方。
Fig. 5.—Looking down upon an extensive pear orchard whose limbs are trained horizontally, forming an arbor completely shading the ground when in leaf, and placing all of the fruit within reach of the hand from beneath.
图6. 日本明石实验站的梨树。梨树用纸袋保护。这是小野教授（站在左边）建议的特殊修剪方式，旁边是时任教授。树的分枝在棚架下方，而不是在棚架高度。
Fig. 6.—Pear trees at Akashi Experiment Station, Japan. Pears protected by paper bags. Special form of pruning advised by Prof. Ono, standing on the left, with Prof. Tokito. The trees branch below rather than at the level of the trellis.
Fig. 7.—Low branching pear orchard with pears protected by paper bags, at Akashi Experiment Station, Japan.
对于来自一个拥有160英亩农场、道路四杆宽的国家的人来说，这座城市拥有宽阔的街道、绿茵茵的草坪和宽敞的后院，墓地也大片大片，还有美丽的公园。在这些古老的国家，初次旅行的人们会感受到无尽的拥挤，这是其他任何事物都无法比拟的。人们会感觉到城市里挤满了房屋和商店，商店里挤满了人和货物；乡村里则挤满了田野，田野里长满了庄稼；而在日本，最拥挤的地方是墓地，墓碑几乎挨着墓碑，家人的墓碑几乎成捆地堆放在坟墓旁，而周围可能根本没有空地，住宅、花园或稻田将原本狭小的土地紧紧地挤在一起，连一条小路都留不住。
To one from a country of 160-acre farms, with roads four rods wide; of cities with broad streets and residences with green lawns and ample back yards; and where the cemeteries are large and beautiful parks, the first days of travel in these old countries force the over-crowding upon the attention as nothing else can. One feels that the cities are greatly over-crowded with houses and shops, and these with people and wares; that the country is over-crowded with fields and the fields with crops; and that in Japan the over-crowding is greatest of all in the cemeteries, gravestones almost touching and markers for families literally in bundles at a grave, while round about there may be no free country whatever, dwellings, gardens or rice paddies contesting the tiny allotted areas too closely to leave even foot-paths between.
图8——箱根乡村的街道。近期被砍伐的山丘上，原始森林普遍消失，这是日本大部分地区的典型特征。
Fig. 8.—Street in a Hakone country village. The general abs ence of old forest growth on the hills recently cut over is characteristic of much of Japan.
除非近期受外来影响而改建，否则乡村和城市的街道都很狭窄，如图8所示，而那里的街道却异常宽阔。这是箱根地区的一个村庄，坐落在美丽的箱根湖畔，湖对岸的山丘上矗立着一座日本皇室的夏宫，位于视野中心附近。这里的房屋屋顶是典型的稻草屋顶，整洁细致，在日本大部分乡村普遍使用这种屋顶来代替瓦片。店铺和商铺面向街道敞开，挤满了人，如图9和图22所示。
Unless recently modified through foreign influence the streets of villages and cities are narrow, as seen in Fig. 8, where however the street is unusually broad. This is a village in the Hakone district on a beautiful lake of the same name, where stands an Imperial summer palace, seen near the center of the view on a hill across the lake. The roofs of the houses here are typical of the neat, careful thatching with rice straw, very generally adopted in place of tile for the country villages throughout much of Japan. The shops and stores, open full width directly upon the street, are filled to overflowing, as seen in Fig. 9 and in Fig. 22.
图 9.—小商店挤满了人；整个前开口与街道齐平。
Fig. 9.—Small store full to overflowing; entire front opening flush with the street.
图 10——中国乡村，沿着运河两岸。两座桥梁之间，三分之一英里长的路段，三排房屋中居住着 240 户人家。
Fig. 10.—Chinese country village lining both sides of a canal. Section one-third of a mile long between two bridges, where in three rows of houses live 240 families.
在中国的运河地区，乡村挤满了运河的两岸，就像图 10中的情况一样。这里也经常只有一条街道，而且非常狭窄，非常拥挤，非常繁忙。石阶从房屋通向河水，人们可以方便地清洗衣服、蔬菜、大米等等。在这个特殊的村庄里，运河的一侧矗立着两排房屋，中间隔着一条非常狭窄的街道，另一侧也只有一排。在相机拍摄的那座桥和背景中一座几乎看不清的桥之间，有三分之一英里远的地方横跨运河，我们沿着狭窄的街道走，数了数一侧，有 80 户人家，每户人家都住着一户人家，通常是三代同堂，经常是四代同堂。因此，在这条 154 英尺宽的狭窄地带，包括 16 英尺长的街道和 30 英尺长的运河，以及它的三排房屋，居住着不少于 240 个家庭和 1200 多人，可能接近 2000 人。
In the canalized regions of China the country villages crowd both banks of a canal, as is the case in Fig. 10. Here, too, often is a single street and it very narrow, very crowded and very busy. Stone steps lead from the houses down into the water where clothing, vegetables, rice and what not are conveniently washed. In this particular village two rows of houses stand on one side of the canal separated by a very narrow street, and a single row on the other. Between the bridge where the camera was exposed and one barely discernible in the background, crossing the canal a third of a mile distant, we counted upon one side, walking along the narrow street, eighty houses each with its family, usually of three generations and often of four. Thus in the narrow strip, 154 feet broad, including 16 feet of street and 30 feet of canal, with its three lines of houses, lived no less than 240 families and more than 1200 and probably nearer 2000 people.
当我们转向这个国家密集的田野时，除了亲眼所见，没有什么能如此有力地告诉我们这样的事实，就像图 11、12 和 13 中的风景一样，一个在日本，一个在韩国，另一个在中国，离南京不远，从田野对面的山丘望去，宽阔的长江几乎看不见，就像地平线上的一条光带。
When we turn to the crowding of fields in the country nothing except seeing can tell so forcibly the fact as such landscapes as those of Figs. 11, 12 and 13, one in Japan, one in Korea and one in China, not far from Nanking, looking from the hills across the fields to the broad Yangtse kiang, barely discernible as a band of light along the horizon.
日本稻田的平均面积不足五平方杆，而高地稻田的面积仅为二十平方杆左右。稻田面积之所以如此之小，部分原因是需要将山谷的斜坡蓄水，如图11所示。这些小面积的稻田并不代表一个家庭耕种的土地面积，日本的平均耕种面积接近2.5英亩。但一个家庭耕种的土地很少是连片的，它们甚至可能非常分散，而且经常是租来的。
The average area of the rice field in Japan is less than five square rods and that of her upland fields only about twenty. In the case of the rice fields the small size is necessitated partly by the requirement of holding water on the sloping sides of the valley, as seen in Fig. 11. These small areas do not represent the amount of land worked by one family, the average for Japan being more nearly 2.5 acres. But the lands worked by one family are seldom contiguous, they may even be widely scattered and very often rented.
人们通常居住在村庄里，通常要走很远的路去工作。日本政府认识到分散的土地被分割成如此小的区域所带来的巨大弊端，因此自1900年起颁布了调整农田的法律。该法律规定了土地交换；边界变更；道路、堤坝、山脊或运河的改建或废除，以及灌溉和排水系统的改造，以确保更大的区域拥有笔直的河道和道路，减少数量，并减少时间、劳动力和土地的浪费。截至1907年，日本已颁发了超过24万英亩土地的重新调整许可证，图14显示的是其中一个重新调整区域的景观。为了提供有能力的专家来规划和监督这些变化，政府于 1905 年委托大日本农业协会下属的高等农业学校负责培训人员，自 1906 年以来，农业大学和工业社也承担了同样的任务，现在有足够的人力来按预期快速推进工作。
The people generally live in villages, going often considerable distances to their work. Recognizing the great disadvantage of scattered holdings broken into such small areas, the Japanese Government has passed laws for the adjustment of farm lands which have been in force since 1900. It provides for the exchange of lands; for changing boundaries; for changing or abolishing roads, embankments, ridges or canals and for alterations in irrigation and drainage which would ensure larger areas with channels and roads straightened, made less numerous and less wasteful of time, labor and land. Up to 1907 Japan had issued permits for the readjustment of over 240,000 acres, and Fig. 14 is a landscape in one of these readjusted districts. To provide capable experts for planning and supervising these changes the Government in 1905 intrusted the training of men to the higher agricultural school belonging to the Dai Nippon Agricultural Association and since 1906 the Agricultural College and the Kogyokusha have undertaken the same task and now there are men sufficient to push the work as rapidly as desired.
图 11。日本密集的稻田，每片稻田都灌满了水，刚刚移植过。
Fig. 11.—Closely crowded fields of rice in Japan, each rice paddy filled with water and recently transplanted.
图12——韩国的风景，展现了山谷地表被细分成不规则的小块田地，仅被窄窄的低矮土垄隔开，这些土垄的宽度和高度都不超过一英尺。中间的田地种植着水稻，右侧的田地已耕作和浇水，但没有种植任何作物，左侧的土垄田地已浇水，但没有耕作。
Fig. 12.—Landscape in Korea, showing subdivision of the valley surface into small irregular fields separated only by narrow, low ridges of earth scarcely more than a foot wide and high. The center field is planted to rice, fields on the right are plowed and watered but not fitted, the ridged field on the left is watered but not plowed.
图 13. 中国稻田景观。前景中的田野仍覆盖着冬季作物，但收割后将种植水稻。白色区域被水淹没，适合种植水稻。长江靠近地平线。
Fig. 13.—Landscape of rice fields in China. Fields in the foreground still covered with winter crops, but when harvested, to be planted to rice. White areas flooded with water and fitting for rice. Yangtse river near horizon.
或许还能记住，日本正采取有效措施改善其人民的生活条件，例如，它已拥有连接各省的帝国公路；连接县内城市和村庄的府县公路；以及服务于农场和村庄的更地方性的道路。这三种道路系统均由专门征收的税款维护，这些税款在适当的监督下使用，并由专门指派的维修队全年负责特定路段的维护，这是铁路维护的惯例。因此，日本的道路状况极佳，始终保持狭窄，占用最少的土地，并且所有道路均没有围栏。
It may be remembered, too, as showing how, along other fundamental lines, Japan is taking effective steps to improve the condition of her people, that she already has her Imperial highways extending from one province to another; her prefectural roads which connect the cities and villages within the prefecture; and those more local which serve the farms and villages. Each of the three systems of roads is maintained by a specific tax levied for the purpose which is expended under proper supervision, a designated section of road being kept in repair through the year by a specially appointed crew, as is the practice in railroad maintenance. The result is, Japan has roads maintained in excellent condition, always narrow, sacrificing the minimum of land, and everywhere without fences.
图 15明显地显示了这些古老的、长期耕作的国家中田野里挤满了庄稼，所有可用的土地都发挥着全部作用，即使是一英尺宽的狭窄分水岭，用来将水留在稻田里，也长满了丰收的大豆；还可以看到狭窄的梨园矗立在地面上最轻微的隆起处，高出周围的水面不到一英尺，最好将稻田平整到适当的水平。
How the fields are crowded with crops and all available land is made to do full duty in these old, long-tilled countries is evident in Fig. 15 where even the narrow dividing ridges but a foot wide, which retain the water on the rice paddies, are bearing a heavy crop of soy beans; and where may be seen the narrow pear orchard standing on the very slightest rise of ground, not a foot above the water all around, which could better be left in grading the paddies to proper level.
图14——日本调整后的地区之一的风景，稻田之间的分界线已被拉直。工人们正在使用新型除草机。
Fig. 14.—Landscape in one of the readjusted districts in Japan where division lines between paddy fields have been straightened. Men using new rice-weeding cultivators.
图 15——整片田地都种满了庄稼，发挥着重要作用。分界线上种着大豆，稻田里种着水稻，狭窄的垄脊上则种着梨园。
Fig. 15.—The entire field completely occupied by crops, rendering effective service. Soy beans on the dividing lines, rice in the paddies, pear orchard on the narrow raised ridge.
图 16.—年轻的桃园作为菜园发挥着重要作用，种植着豌豆、卷心菜和温莎豆。
Fig. 16.—Young peach orchard doing intense duty as a market garden, growing peas, cabbage and Windsor beans.
图16展示了地面上植物的密集程度。图中是一片年轻的桃园，树梢直径六英尺，每行间隔二十二英尺种植，园内还种植了十行卷心菜、两行温莎豆和一行豌豆。22英尺的间隔内种植了十三行蔬菜，所有植物都枝繁叶茂，茁壮成长。请注意，将最高、最需要阳光的植物种植在树木之间的中心位置，体现了种植者的明智之举。
How closely the ground itself may be crowded with plants is seen in Fig. 16, where a young peach orchard, whose tree tops were six feet through, planted in rows twenty-two feet apart, had also ten rows of cabbage, two rows of large Windsor beans and a row of garden peas. Thirteen rows of vegetables in 22 feet, all luxuriant and strong, and note the judgment shown in placing the tallest plants, needing the most sun, in the center between the trees.
但是这些老人，早已习惯了拥挤，早已能够在只有一棵草的地方长出四棵草，也学会了如何在作物需要更多肘部空间而不是站立空间的情况下将种植面积翻倍，如图17所示。这个人的花园面积只有63英尺乘68英尺，其中两平方杆被神圣地奉献给家族墓地，然而，他的产量、作物数量和价格却让他在不到十分之一英亩的土地上每年赚取100美元。
But these old people, used to crowding and to being crowded, and long ago capable of making four blades of grass grow where Nature grew but one, have also learned how to double the acreage where a crop needs more elbow than it does standing room, as seen in Fig. 17. This man’s garden had an area of but 63 by 68 feet and two square rods of this was held sacred to the family grave mound, and yet his statement of yields, number of crops and prices made his earning $100 a year on less than one-tenth of an acre.
他种了一茬黄瓜，不到0.06英亩，能挣20美元。他已经卖掉了价值5美元的黄瓜，之后还会种第二茬。他刚刚用脚踏泵从附近的一条水渠给菜园浇水，并表示在下雨之前，他会每周浇一次水。站在花园里的是他的妻子，虽然穿着裤子，但她的着装非常端庄得体。
His crop of cucumbers on less than .06 of an acre would bring him $20. He had already sold $5 worth of greens and a second crop would follow the cucumbers. He had just irrigated his garden from an adjoining canal, using a foot-power pump, and stated that until it rained he would repeat the watering once per week. It was his wife who stood in the garden and, although wearing trousers, her dress showed full regard for modesty.
但是，让庄稼在田里长得更密，不仅需要更高的施肥量才能获得更高的收益，还需要相对更细心的照料、百般密切的观察和远超美国人的耐心；所以，在庄稼在田里密集生长之前以及伴随庄稼密集生长的同时，这些年迈的农民的大脑灰质也开始密集生长，并进化出了有效的纹理。这体现在他密集生长的田野上。也体现在他田里密集生长的庄稼上。你可以在老人的脸上看到这一点（图 18），他站在他的同伴庆亲王对面（图 19），两人都穿着冬装，这是谈话的化身，将体内的热量保留下来以满足自身的需要，将山坡上的生长物释放出来用于其他用途。当我们意识到，在所有重要方面，保护自然几乎已经达到了极限，并成为一种遗传的本能时，就不会感到惊讶了，这两个人，一个是饲养者，另一个是领导者，正站在四亿人的前列，他们作为一个国家已经走过了大约四十个世纪，现在，在不断发展的科学的光芒和伟大希望的指引下，他们正面向更加充满希望和更加长久的未来。
But crowding crops more closely in the field not only requires higher feeding to bring greater returns, but also relatively greater care, closer watchfulness in a hundred ways and a patience far beyond American measure; and so, before the crowding of the crops in the field and along with it, there came to these very old farmers a crowding of the grey matter in the brain with the evolution of effective texture. This is shown in his fields which crowd the landscape. It is seen in the crops which crowd his fields. You see it in the old man’s face, Fig. 18, standing opposite his compeer, Prince Ching, Fig. 19, each clad in winter dress which is the embodiment of conversation, retaining the fires of the body for its own needs, to release the growth on mountain sides for other uses. And when one realizes how, nearly to the extreme limits, conservation along all important lines is being practiced as an inherited instinct, there need be no surprise when one reflects that the two men, one as feeder and the other as leader, are standing in the fore of a body of four hundred millions of people who have marched as a nation through perhaps forty centuries, and who now, in the light and great promise of unfolding science have their faces set toward a still more hopeful and longer future.
图17——增加田地的可用面积，使种植数量翻倍。每个棚架两侧各种植一排黄瓜，覆盖整个地表。
Fig. 17.—Increasing the available surface of the field so that double the number of plants may occupy the ground. A row of cucumbers on opposite sides of each trellis will cover its surface.
2月21日，土佐丸号准时从横滨出发前往神户，就像它从西雅图出发一样。所有日本轮船似乎都像火车一样快捷。抵达神户后，我们换乘了第二天早上启航的山口丸号，以缩短抵达上海的时间。这样，我们只用了一个下午的时间就前往神户和大阪之间的乡村。在那里，我们发现，如果可能的话，那里的耕作方式甚至比东京平原还要高级、集约化，因为那里没有种植冬季作物的土地更少。图20显示了农作物与房屋和商店的紧密联系。这里有许多水泥砌成的蓄水池或避风水池，用于收集和配制肥料，土壤和农作物的外观都清楚地表明了这些水池的优势。我们经过了一个近一英亩的花园，里面种满了刚刚盛开的英国紫罗兰。它们生长在东西平行的长畦里，宽约三英尺。每畦的北边都立着一个四英尺高的稻草屏风，向南倾斜，以三十五度角悬在畦上，形成一个烤箱帐篷，可以反射阳光，减弱风力，并抑制土壤吸收热量的损失。
On February 21st the Tosa Maru left Yokohama for Kobe at schedule time on the tick of the watch, as she had done from Seattle. All Japanese steamers appear to be moved with the promptness of a railway train. On reaching Kobe we transferred to the Yamaguchi Maru which sailed the following morning, to shorten the time of reaching Shanghai. This left but an afternoon for a trip into the country between Kobe and Osaka, where we found, if possible, even higher and more intensive culture practices than on the Tokyo plain, there being less land not carrying a winter crop. And Fig. 20 shows how closely the crops crowd the houses and shops. Here were very many cement lined cisterns or sheltered reservoirs for collecting manures and preparing fertilizers and the appearance of both soil and crops showed in a marked manner to what advantage. We passed a garden of nearly an acre entirely devoted to English violets just coming into full bloom. They were grown in long parallel east and west beds about three feet wide, On the north edge of each bed was erected a rice-straw screen four feet high which inclined to the south, overhanging the bed at an angle of some thirty-five degrees, thus forming a sort of bake-oven tent which reflected the sun, broke the force of the wind and checked the loss of heat absorbed by the soil.
我们从神户启程前往门司，航程于2月24日上午10点至2月25日下午5点30分之间进行，一路风平浪静，旅途愉快。夜里雾气弥漫，我们得以饱览日本美丽的内海全景，它近在咫尺，远在天边，美得令人窒息，任何笔墨、画笔、相机都无法捕捉。唯有眼睛才能传达。抵达港口前，潮水已涨，分隔本州和九州岛的海峡在门司和下关之间奔腾，如同一条奔腾的河流，黑暗中尝试前往非常危险，所以我们一直等到天亮。
The voyage from Kobe to Moji was made between 10 in the morning, February 24th, and 5 :30 P. M. of February 25th over a quiet sea with an enjoyable ride. Being fogbound during the night gave us the whole of Japan’s beautiful Inland Sea, enchanting beyond measure, in all its near and distant beauty but which no pen, no brush, no camera may attempt. Only the eye can convey. Before reaching harbor the tide had been rising and the strait separating Honshu from Kyushu island was running like a mighty swirling river between Moji and Shimonoseki, dangerous to attempt in the dark, so we waited until morning.
图 18.身着冬装的中国老年农民，领导着国家的维护工作。
Fig. 18.—Aged Chinese farmer in winter dress, who leads in the maintenance of his nation.
版权所有，Underwood & Underwood, NY
Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.
图 19. 庆亲王也身着冬装。
Fig. 19.—Prince Ching, also in winter dress.
船上有货物要装船，轮船也必须加煤。船刚抛锚，迎风驶入海流，驳船就载着即将出港的货物靠岸了。身材矮小、体格健壮、身手敏捷的日本码头工人在晚上8点30分完成了这项任务。晚饭后我们回到甲板时，又是另一番景象。货驳船已经开走，四艘载着250吨煤的大型驳船停泊在轮船的两侧，每艘驳船上都堆满了熊熊燃烧的煤桶，或者在地面上燃烧着锥形煤堆。在黑暗中，从这些煤坑的底部望去，煤堆仿佛被覆盖着，四处都是匆匆忙忙的人群，仿佛巨大的断头蚁群在疯狂地忙碌着。男人、女人、男孩、女孩，都弯腰忙着各自的活儿，把煤装进浅碟状的篮子里，然后堆成八到十个半圆形，就像等待交货的硬币一样。从这些煤坑上升到轮船舷外十六英尺高的地方，沿着甲板一直延伸到通往煤仓的溜槽，似乎有四条人链，永无止境。这四条人链是我们现代传送带的原型，但每个环节都由自身的力量驱动。装满煤的桶以每分钟40到60个的速度一个接一个地沿着传送带向上移动，然后沿着下行的线路空载返回。每小时一百吨的煤炭通过四条人链，在两个半小时内，250吨煤炭被送往煤仓。男女老少都站在人链中，其中一条人链的上方转弯处，一位母亲正背着她两岁的孩子，将煤桶倒入溜槽，孩子则在她背上摇晃，整个过程中都开心极了。每当婴儿背带倾斜得难受，母亲就得帮他调整，但她动作娴熟，总是耸耸肩膀，因为两只手都忙得不可开交。母亲看起来很坚强，似乎对自己的命运习以为常，经常面带微笑地把脸转向孩子，孩子会轻拍她，玩弄她的耳朵和头发。或许她的丈夫在更辛苦的岗位上工作，两人都没时间操心亲疏，因为篮子停工时已经是晚上10点半了，肯定要赶回家，或许还要准备晚饭。等我们的孩子数量大大增加，我们能否以更好的方式获得所有必要的收入呢？
There was cargo to take on board and the steamer must coal. No sooner had the anchor dropped and the steamer swung into the current than lighters came alongside with out-going freight. The small, strong, agile Japanese stevedores had this task completed by 8:30 P. M. and when we returned to the deck after supper another scene was on. The cargo lighters had gone and four large barges bearing 250 tons of coal had taken-their places on opposite sides of the steamer, each illuminated with buckets of blazing coal or by burning conical heaps on the surface. From the bottom of these pits in the darkness the illumination suggested huge decapitated ant heaps in the wildest frenzy, for the coal seemed covered and there was hurry in every direction. Men and women, boys and girls, bending to their tasks, were filling shallow saucer-shaped baskets with coal and stacking them eight to ten high in a semicircle, like coin for delivery. Rising out of these pits sixteen feet up the side of the steamer and along her deck to the chutes leading to her bunkers were what seemed four endless human chains, in service the prototype of our modern conveyors, but here each link animated by its own power. Up these conveyors the loaded buckets passed, one following another at the rate of 40 to 60 per minute, to return empty by the descending line, and over the four chains one hundred tons per hour, for 250 tons of coal passed to the bunkers in two and a half hours. Both men and women stood in the line and at the upper turn of one of these, emptying the buckets down the chute, was a mother with her two-year-old child in the sling on her back, where it rocked and swayed to and fro, happy the entire time. It was often necessary for the mother to adjust her baby in the sling whenever it was leaning uncomfortably too far to, one side or the other, but she did it skillfully, always with a shrug of the shoulders, for both hands were full. The mother looked strong, was apparently accepting her lot as a matter of course and often, with a smile, turned her face to the child, who patted it and played with her ears and hair. Probably her husband was doing his part in a more strenuous place in the chain and neither had time to be troubled with affinities for it was 10:30 P. M. when the baskets stopped, and somewhere no doubt there was a home to be reached and perhaps supper to get. Shall we be able, when our numbers have vastly increased, to permit all needful earnings to be acquired in a better way?
图 20——2 月 23 日，日本神户和大阪之间新建的花园挤满了房屋和商店。
Fig. 20.—Newly started gardens crowded close about houses and shops between Kobe and Osaka, Japan, Feb. 23.
我们清晨离开门司，傍晚时分抵达美丽的长崎港，船上所有人都在等待第二天早晨的汽艇登陆。中午我们就要再次启航，因此可供观察的时间不多，于是我们立即乘坐人力车出发，第一次近距离观赏日本陡峭山坡上的梯田。往返途中，我们穿过用又长又厚又窄的石块铺成的街道，房屋旁边或两侧都有深深的排水沟，污水排入其中，暴雨后的积水也由此流入大海。这些街道很少有超过十二英尺宽的，需要密切观察，小心翼翼地躲避才能通过。在这里，人们也把城市的粪便装在密闭的容器里，由人扛着，由马背、牛背着，或者用牛拉的车子运走。其他男人和女人都提着一篮子蔬菜（如图 21所示）匆匆而过，有的篮子里装着新鲜的卷心菜，有的篮子里装着高高的脆生菜堆，有的篮子里装着巨大的白萝卜或芜菁，还有的篮子里装着一捆捆的洋葱，他们都从梯田花园里下来，来到市场。我们经过一车车刚砍好的绿竹竿，竹竿末端直径 3 英寸，长 20 英尺。男人和女人都抱着小孩，大一点的则在街上玩耍唱歌。许多老妇人，有些看起来很虚弱，扛着东西穿过人群。朴素的小狗，偶尔出现的瘦猫，还有母鸡和公鸡从一个低矮的市场或商店匆匆穿过街道到另一个。在干净狭窄的街道两旁成排的小商店和店铺后面，是一些住宅，它们的出口似乎都穿过商店，很少或根本没有大小的露天庭院将住宅与市场或商店隔开。图 22显示了东方家庭主妇在去市场选择蔬菜时可能拥有的机会，以及日本展示此类产品的吸引人的方式。
We left Moji in the early morning and late in the evening of the same day entered the beautiful harbor of Nagasaki, all on board waiting until morning for a launch to go ashore. We were to sail again at noon so available time for observation was short and we set out in a ricksha at once for our first near view of terraced gardening on the steep hillsides in Japan. In reaching them and in returning our course led through streets paved with long, thick and narrow stone blocks, having deep open gutters on one or both sides close along the houses, into which waste water was emptied and through which the storm waters found their way to the sea. Few of these streets were more than twelve feet wide and close watching, with much dodging, was required to make way through them. Here, too, the night soil of the city was being removed in closed receptacles on the shoulders of men, on the backs of horses and cattle and on carts drawn by either. Other men and women were hurrying along with baskets of vegetables well illustrated in Fig. 21, some with fresh cabbage, others with high stacks of crisp lettuce, some with monstrous white radishes or turnips, others with bundles of onions, all coming down from the terraced gardens to the markets. We passed loads of green bamboo poles just cut, three inches in diameter at the butt and twenty feet long, drawn on carts. Both men and women were carrying young children and older ones were playing and singing in the street. Very many old women, some feeble looking, moved,loaded,through the throng. Homely little dogs, an occasional lean cat, and hens and roosters scurried across the street from one low market or store to another. Back of the rows of small stores and shops fronting on the clean narrow streets were the dwellings whose exits seemed to open through the stores, few or no open courts of any size separating them from the market or shop. The opportunity which the oriental housewife may have in the choice of vegetables on going to the market, and the attractive manner of displaying such products in Japan, are seen in Fig. 22.
图 21.—蔬菜小贩扛着货物从一家卖蔬菜的卖到另一家卖蔬菜的卖。
Fig. 21.—Vegetable vender with is load as carried from house to house.
图22——日本蔬菜商的商店。中间的大块蔬菜是竹笋，类似于芦笋，在东方各地广泛用于食用。
Fig. 22.—Store of Japanese vegetable dealer. The large vegetables in the center are bamboo sprouts, of the nature of asparagus, used extensively for food everywhere in the Orient.
我们终于到达了一片梯田山坡，它高出海港五百到一千英尺，坡度非常陡峭，花园区域的宽度很少超过二十到三十英尺，通常更少，而每个梯田的前面可能是一堵石墙，有时十二英尺高，通常超过六英尺，四五英尺是最常见的高度。图 23显示了其中一个山坡。这些梯田花园又矮又窄，大多数三面都被石墙包围，暗示着房屋的地基，两端的墙从梯田后部的高度向下倾斜，下降到前面的地面，这些墙偶尔形成通往斜坡的小路，在某些地方有一、二或三个台阶。
We finally reached one of the terraced hillsides which rise five hundred to a thousand feet above the harbor with sides so steep that garden areas have a width of seldom more than twenty to thirty feet and often less, while the front of each terrace may be a stone wall, sometimes twelve feet high, often more than six, four and five feet being the most common hight. One of these hillside slopes is seen in Fig. 23. These terraced gardens are both short and narrow and most of them bounded by stone walls on three sides, suggesting house foundations, the two end walls sloping down the hill from the hight of the back terrace, dropping to the ground level in front, these forming foot-paths leading up the slope occasionally with one, two or three steps in places.
每块梯田都以小角度略微向下倾斜，前部有一道低矮的山脊。梯田的整个边缘都设有狭窄的排水沟或沟渠，用于收集地表水，并将其引导至排水渠或集水池，以便将水重新浇灌到菜园或用于配制液体肥料。许多小型梯田菜园的一角都有水泥砌成的坑，既用作集水池，也用作盛放液体肥料或配制堆肥的容器。沿着陡峭的小路往上走，我们还看到两旁堆积如山的马厩粪肥，它们都是由男男女女用竹竿挑着篮子从山坡上扛上来的。
Each terrace sloped slightly down the hill at a small angle and had a low ridge along the front. Around its entire border a narrow drain or furrow was arranged to collect surface water and direct it to drainage channels or into a catch basin where it might be put back on the garden or be used in preparing liquid fertilizer. At one corner of many of these small terraced gardens were cement lined pits, used both as catch basins for water and as receptacles for liquid manure or as places in which to prepare compost. Far up the steep paths, too, along either side, we saw many piles of stable manure awaiting application, all of which had been brought up the slopes in baskets on bamboo poles, carried on the shoulders of men and women.
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11点30分，汽艇将乘客送回了轮船；船长正在驾驶台上；“起航”的呼喊声一响，信号立即降下，山口号的汽笛声响彻港湾，淹没了群山。缆绳绕了回去，中午12点，我们离开了长崎。如今，长崎是一座拥有15.3万人口的城市，是一个拥有5100万人口的国家的西大门，但在16世纪成为葡萄牙贸易的主要市场之前，它并不重要。我们将经过右侧的朝鲜半岛，进入一个拥有4亿人口的第三个国家的门户。我们离开了一个在一百年内人口增加了8500万、至今人均土地（无论男女老少）只有20英亩的国家，而我们即将穿过一个人均土地只有1.5英亩的国家，前往另一个无论好坏，土地分配都不足2.4英亩的国家。我们告别了三代人耕耘殆尽的肥沃处女地，来到了历经三十个世纪耕作却依然肥沃的土地。1月30日，我们渡过了密西西比河-密苏里河的源头，距离河口有四千英里；3月1日，我们抵达了长江入海口，长江水源来自一个居住着两亿人的流域。
The launch had returned the passengers to the steamer at 11:30; the captain was on the bridge; prompt to the minute at the call “Hoist away” the signal went below and the Yamaguchi’s whistle filled the harbor and overflowed the hills. The cable wound in, and at twelve, noon, we were leaving Nagasaki, now a city of 153,000 and the western doorway of a nation of fifty-one millions of people but of little importance before the sixteenth century when it became the chief mart of Portuguese trade. We were to pass the Koreans on our right and enter the portals of a third nation of four hundred millions. We had left a country which had added eighty-five millions to its population in one hundred years and which still has twenty acres for each man, woman and child, to pass through one which has but one and a half acres per capita, and were going to another whose allotment of acres, good and bad, is less than 2.4. We had gone from practices by which three generations had exhausted strong virgin fields, and were coming to others still fertile after thirty centuries of cropping. On January 30th we crossed the head waters of the Mississippi-Missouri, four thousand miles from its mouth, and on March 1st were in the mouth of the Yangtse river whose waters are gathered from a basin in which dwell two hundred millions of people
山口号夜里抵达吴淞，抛锚等候清晨潮水涨起，然后溯黄浦江而上。一些地理学家认为，黄浦江是长江早期三个三角洲支流的中段。南支流在120英里以南的杭州入海，第三支流就是现在的黄浦江。当我们蜿蜒穿过这片广阔的三角洲平原，驶向上海——这座对外租界开放的城市时，映入眼帘的第一个景象就是“父辈的坟墓”，“祖先的坟墓”。起初，平原上点缀着无数长满青草的小丘，看起来像是一堆堆谷物或稻草；后来，人们开始怀疑它们是不是等待在田里施肥的巨大堆肥，但随着河流将我们带近，我们仿佛穿越了一片古代土墩建造者的土地。图24的上半部分展示了它们在远处的样子。
The Yamaguchi reached Woosung in the night and anchored to await morning and tide before ascending the Hwangpoo, believed by some geographers to be the middle of three earlier delta arms of the Yangtse kiang, the southern entering the sea at Hangchow 120 miles further south, the third being the present stream. As we wound through this great delta plain toward Shanghai, the city of foreign concessions to all nationalities, the first striking feature was the “graves of the fathers”, of “the ancestors”. At first the numerous grass-covered hillocks dotting the plain seemed to be stacks of grain or straw; then came the query whether they might not be huge compost heaps awaiting distribution in the fields, but as the river brought us nearer to them we seemed to be moving through a land of ancient mound builders and Fig. 24 shows, in its upper section, their appearance as seen in the distance.
图 24.—中国长江三角洲地区墓地景观。
Fig. 24.—Views of grave lands in the delta region of the Yangste kiang, China.
随着旅程在田野中继续前行，我们看到了巨大的土丘，通常高达十到十二英尺，底部二十英尺甚至更高；土丘上长满了草，显然无人照管；土丘数量众多，散布不规则，似乎没有考虑到田野，因此当我们被告知这些是坟墓时，我们无法相信这种说法，但在到达城市之前，我们看到一些地方，由于河道移动，河水切入了一些土丘，露出了砖砌的拱顶，有些拱顶很低，有时甚至被水淹没，我们想知道，这一事实是否也记录了三角洲平原在不断增加的河流淤泥负荷下缓慢下沉的情况。
As the journey led on among the fields, so large were the mounds, often ten to twelve feet high and twenty or more feet at the base; so grass-covered and apparently neglected; so numerous and so irregularly scattered, without apparent regard for fields, that when we were told these were graves we could not give credence to the statement, but before the city was reached we saw places where, by the shifting of the channel, the river had cut into some of these mounds, exposing brick vaults, some so low as to be under water part of the time, and we wonder if the fact does not also record a slow subsidence of the delta plain under the ever increasing load of river silt.
图24的下半部分展示了同一三角洲平原上这些坟墓的近景，它们位于田野中央，不仅占据了大片宝贵的土地，而且对农业生产也产生了很大的影响。同一幅图的中半部分展示了其他墓群的近景，背景是一个农庄，从中可以更清楚地看到它们所占据的空间有多大。在同一视图的右侧，可以看到一排六个坟墓，它们矗立在一个共同的较低基座上，这种基座属于较大较高的类型，让人联想到上半部分地平线上的建筑物。
A closer view of these graves in the same delta plain is given in the lower section of Fig. 24, where they are seen in the midst of fields and to occupy not only large areas of valuable land but to be much in the way of agricultural operations. A still closer view of other groups, with a farm village in the background, is shown in the middle section of the same illustration, and here it is better seen how large is the space occupied by them. On the right in the same view may be seen a line of six graves surmounting a common lower base which is a type of the larger and higher ones so suggestive of buildings seen in the horizon of the upper section.
我们在中国所到之处，几乎所有古老而庞大的城市，墓地与耕地的比例都非常大。在湖南岛的广州基督教学院附近，超过50%的土地都被用作坟墓，而且很多地方的坟墓彼此之间非常近，人们可以从一座坟墓走到另一座。这些坟墓位于地势较高且干燥的地区，耕地则分布在沟壑和低洼地带，这些地方更容易灌溉，而且土地最肥沃。丘陵地带不太容易耕种，尤其是在城市附近的丘陵地带，也大多被用作耕种地，如图25所示，那里的坟墓是用挖掘出来的搁板标记的，而不是像平原上的土丘那样。这些墓地并非完全不肥沃，因为它们通常长满了各种各样的草本植物，被用作鹅、羊、山羊和牛的牧场。沿着运河骑行时，经常会看到一头巨大的水牛，矗立在触手可及的最大、最高的坟丘之一的顶上，映衬着天空。如果牧草没有被动物吃掉，通常会被砍伐用作饲料、燃料、绿肥或用于生产堆肥来肥沃土壤。
Everywhere we went in China, about all of the very old and large cities, the proportion of grave land to cultivated fields is very large. In the vicinity of Canton Christian college, on Honam island, more than fifty per cent of the land was given over to graves and in many places they were so close that one could step from one to another. They are on the higher and dryer lands, the cultivated areas occupying ravines and the lower levels to which water may be more easily applied and which are the most productive. Hilly lands not so readily cultivated, and especially if within reach of cities, are largely so used, as seen in Fig. 25, where the graves are marked by excavated shelves rather than by mounds, as on the plains. These grave lands are not altogether unproductive for they are generally overgrown with herbage of one or another kind and used as pastures for geese, sheep, goats and cattle, and it is not at all uncommon, when riding along a canal, to see a huge water buffalo projected against the sky from the summit of one of the largest and highest grave mounds within reach. If the herbage is not fed off by animals it is usually cut for feed, for fuel, for green manure or for use in the production of compost to enrich the soil.
图 25. 上海附近墓地上的山羊和广州附近丘陵地带的坟墓上吃草的山羊。
Fig. 25.—Goats pasturing on grave land near Shanghai, and graves in hilly lands near Canton.
棺材可以直接放在田地上，放在砖砌的拱顶上，用瓦片盖起来，形成像浙江省大运河岸边那样的群葬，如图 26的下半部分所示，或者它们也可以单独地立在花园中间，就像在同一张图的上半部分；在一年中部分时间完全被水包围的稻田里，以及几乎任何意想不到的地方。1898年，在上海，2763具暴露在外的棺材尸体被当局移出公共租界或埋葬。
Caskets may be placed directly upon the surface of a field, encased in brick vaults with tile roofs, forming such clusters as was seen on the bank of the Grand Canal in Chekiang province, represented in the lower section of Fig. 26, or they may stand singly in the midst of a garden, as in the upper section of the same figure; in a rice paddy entirely surrounded by water parts of the year, and indeed in almost any unexpected place. In Shanghai in 1898, 2,763 exposed coffined corpses were removed outside the International Settlement or buried by the authorities.
图 26. 下部为砖砌拱顶中的墓群，上部为花园中的独立墓穴，带有两个大型墓丘。
Fig. 26.—Cluster of graves in brick vaults, lower section; and isolated grave in garden, with two large grave mounds, upper section.
再往北，在山东省，旱季更长，严重的干旱使草木矮小，墓地几乎变成了裸露的土地。如图27所示，一位山东农民刚刚挖了一口临时井，用来灌溉他那一小块大麦田。在相机拍摄这张照片的范围内，除了附近的七个坟丘外，还有四十多个坟丘，距离很近，可以固定在底片上，在玻璃下清晰可见，这表明，总共有大片土地被用作坟墓。
Further north, in the Shantung province, where the dry season is more prolonged and where a severe drought had made grass short, the grave lands had become nearly naked soil, as seen in Fig. 27 where a Shantung farmer had just dug a temporary well to irrigate his little field of barley. Within the range of the camera, as held to take this view, more than forty grave mounds besides the seven near by, are near enough, to be fixed on the negative and be discernible under a glass, indicating what extensive areas of land, in the aggregate, are given over to graves.
再往北，在直隶，一个类似的故事被讲述得更加生动，并且在下一幅插图（图28）中得到了充分证实。这幅插图展示了一个典型的家族群体，在大沽口和天津之间以及更远的北京地区随处可见。当我们进入通往天津的白河河口时，远处延伸到地平线尽头，除了大量的“祖坟”外，几乎是一片光秃秃的平原。这些“祖坟”如此奇特，如此光秃秃，形状如此规则，数量如此之多，以至于我们走了一个多小时才意识到它们是坟墓，而且这里的死者可能比活人更密集。在很多地方都有巨大的祖坟，坟顶上常常盖着一个从远处看像烟囱的东西，还有许多相关的小坟墓，以至于路过时很难认出它们是什么。
Still further north, in Chihli, a like story is told in, if possible, more emphatic manner and fully vouched for in the next illustration, Fig. 28, which shows a typical family group, to be observed in so many places between Taku and Tientsin and beyond toward Peking. As we entered the mouth of the Pei-ho for Tientsin, far away to the vanishing horizon there stretched an almost naked plain except for the vast numbers of these “graves of the fathers”, so strange, so naked, so regular in form and so numerous that more than an hour of our journey had passed before we realized that they were graves and that the country here was perhaps more densely peopled with the dead than with the living. In so many places there was the huge father grave, often capped with what in the distance suggested a chimney, and the many associated smaller ones, that it was difficult to realize in passing what they were.
即使居住地已永久迁至某个遥远的省份，人们仍会将遗体运回原籍安葬，这是一种常见的习俗。这种习俗导致人们会为遗体选择一个临时地点，等待合适的时机将其运回原籍。因此，我们经常会看到棺材孤零零地放在简陋的稻草屋顶下，如图29所示。许多小石罐中装有死者的骨骼或部分骨骼，单独或成排地立在拥挤的田野和花园中最意想不到的地方，最不碍事，等待着被运往最终的安息之地。我听说，这种习俗还导致人们在放置遗体的棺材底部放置大量的苛性石灰，石灰可以起到有效的吸收剂的作用。
It is a common custom, even if the residence has been permanently changed to some distant province, to take the bodies back for interment in the family group; and it is this custom which leads to the practice of choosing a temporary location for the body, waiting for a favorable opportunity to remove it to the family group. This is often the occasion for the isolated coffin so frequently seen under a simple thatch of rice straw, as in Fig. 29; and the many small stone jars containing skeletons of the dead, or portions of them, standing singly or in rows in the most unexpected places least in the way in the crowded fields and gardens, awaiting removal to the final resting place. It is this custom, too, I am told, which has led to placing a large quantity of caustic lime in the bottom of the casket, on which the body rests, this acting as an effective absorbent..
图27——山东省被田地环绕的坟墓。农民挖了一口临时井来灌溉受到干旱威胁的小麦田。
Fig. 27.—Graves surrounded by fields in the Shantung province. The farmer has dug a temporary well to irrigate the little barley field threatened by drought.
图 28。大沽口和天津之间的直隶家族墓群；最大的坟墓或父亲的坟墓位于后面，旁边是他的两个儿子的坟墓。
Fig. 28.—Family group of grave mounds in Chihli, between Taku and Tientsin; the largest or father grave is in the rear, those of his two sons standing next.
图 29. 临时埋葬，棺材上铺着稻草；坟墓位于背景右侧的高地上。
Fig. 29.—Temporary burial, coffin thatched with straw; graves on the higher land at the right in background.
在中国，部分地区（即便不是全部地区）的习俗是定期修缮土墩，保持其高度和大小，如下两幅图所示，并每年一次用飘扬的彩纸装饰土墩。图30和图31中可以看到彩纸的残片。这些彩纸被放置在那里，象征着已在土墩上焚烧纸钱，并将纸钱的精华随烟雾升腾，以安抚逝去亲友的灵魂。我们有自己的纪念日；几个世纪以来，他们一直虔诚地遵守着他们的纪念日。
It is the custom in some parts of China, if not in all, to periodically restore the mounds, maintaining their hight and size, as is seen in the next two illustrations, and to decorate these once in the year with flying streamers of colored paper, the remnants of which may be seen in both Figs. 30 and 31, set there as tokens that the paper money has been burned upon them and its essence sent up in the smoke for the maintenance of the spirits of their departed friends. We have our memorial day; they have for centuries observed theirs with religious fidelity.
据说，劳动人民通常的丧葬费用为100美元（墨西哥元），考虑到一天的工资或家庭一年的收入，再加上每年祭祀祖先的费用，这笔费用简直是一笔巨大的负担。在这种情况下，人们如何自愿承担如此沉重的负担，令人难以理解。传教士声称，他们之所以愿意承担这些负担，是因为他们害怕今生的恶果以及来世的惩罚和忽视。难道这难道不是更有可能的吗？这些人为了在生者心中树立好名声，也是为了与逝者保持深厚而持久的友谊，愿意付出这样的代价吗？一个善良、热心、孝顺的民族，在他们悠久的历史早期，竟然相信亡灵的灵魂会在家里徘徊，会在家里徘徊，会在家里徘徊，会在家里徘徊，还会在外面游荡，这似乎也不足为奇。因为这些情况肯定与某种联系有关，这些联系必定会长久而强烈地唤起人们对逝去朋友的回忆。如果这种观点是可能的，那么这种祖先崇拜是否可以成为坚定而有价值品格的指标呢？当进步到来，可以减轻现在所承受的沉重负担时，这种品格只会更加光彩夺目，对正确的生活和舒适生活更有价值？
The usual expense of a burial among the working people is said to be $100, Mexican, an enormous burden when the day’s wage or the yearly earning of the family is considered and when there is added to this the yearly expense of ancestor worship. How such voluntary burdens are assumed by people under such circumstances is hard to understand. Missionaries assert it is fear of evil consequences in this life and of punishment and neglect in the hereafter that leads to assuming them. Is it not far more likely that such is the price these people are willing to pay for a good name among the living and because of their deep and lasting friendship for the departed? Nor does it seem at all strange that a kindly, warm-hearted people with strong filial affection should have reached, early in their long history, a belief in one spirit of the departed which hovers about the home, one which hovers about the grave and another which wanders abroad, for surely there are associations with each of these conditions which must long and forcefully awaken memories of friends gone. If this view is possible may not such ancestral worship be an index of qualities of character strongly fixed and of the highest worth which, when improvements come that may relieve the heavy burdens now carried, will only shine more brightly and count more for right living as well as comfort?
图 30——最近修复的墓冢，悬挂着象征追悼会的飘带。
Fig. 30.—Grave mounds recently restored and bearing the streamer standards in token of memorial services.
即使在我们自己的例子中，也很难说我们的丧葬习俗已经达到了最佳和最终的解决方案，因为在所有文明国家，这些习俗都过于昂贵且繁琐。只需在脑海中想象一下几个世纪以来我们墓地的积累，就能意识到我们的习俗已经变得多么不可能。显然，这里有一条非常重要的改进路线，所有民族都应该采取。
Even in our own case it will hardly be maintained that our burial customs have reached their best and final solution, for in all civilized nations they are unnecessarily expensive and far too cumbersome. It is only necessary to mentally add the accumulation of a few centuries to our cemeteries to realize how impossible our practice must become. Clearly there is here a very important line for betterment which all nationalities should undertake.
轮船停靠上海时，天气宜人，我们并没有像在横滨那样穿着雨衣迎接我们。但为了捞点小钱而上船的人却多得多，在很多方面都与日本人形成了鲜明对比。我们惊讶地发现，船上的中国人身材魁梧，远超通常在美国看到的中国人。他们的体型与身材魁梧的美国人不相上下，但几乎没有多余的肉，而且很少有人看起来营养不良。只要看看他们用结实的竹子扛着一捆捆棉花，就能看出他们是强壮耐寒的男子；而他们用独轮车长途跋涉，运送沉重的货物，如图32所示，也证明了他们强大的耐力。独轮车也是运送人员（尤其是中国妇女）的常用交通工具之一，通常可以看到四人、六人甚至八人一起乘坐独轮车，由一名推车夫推着。
When the steamer anchored at Shanghai the day was pleasant and the rain coats which greeted us in Yokohama were not in evidence but the numbers who had met the steamer in the hope of an opportunity for earning a trifle was far greater and in many ways in strong contrast with the Japanese. We were much surprised to find the men of so large stature, much above the Chinese usually seen in the United States. They were fully the equal of large Americans in frame but quite without surplus flesh yet few appeared underfed. To realize that these are strong, hardy men it was only necessary to watch them carrying on their shoulders bales of cotton between them, supported by a strong bamboo; while the heavy loads they transport on wheel-barrows through the country over long distances, as seen in Fig. 32, prove their great endurance. This same type of vehicle, too, is one of the common means of transporting people, especially Chinese women, and four, six and even eight may be seen riding together, propelled by a single wheelbarrow man.
图 31. 一组长满草的坟墓，上面悬挂着旗帜，显示出大面积的土地占用。
Fig. 31.—Group of grass-grown grave mounds carrying the streamer standards and showing the extensive occupation of land.
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我们来这里是为了了解古代的农民是如何在如此狭小的土地上，以如此低廉的价格，在如此多的世纪里，为如此众多的人们提供衣食住行的物资的，我们迫不及待地想看到这些物资在田野里、在庄稼地里生长。太阳仍然在赤道以南，每天只北移大约十二英里，所以为了节省时间，我们订了下一班开往香港的轮船，在北回归线以南六百英里的广州迎接春天的到来，然后乘船返回。
We had come to learn how the old-world farmers had been able to provide materials for food and clothing on such small areas for so many millions, at so low a price, during so many centuries, and were anxious to see them at the soil and among the crops. The sun was still south of the equator, coming north only about twelve miles per day, so, to save time, we booked on the next steamer for Hongkong to meet spring at Canton, beyond the Tropic of Cancer, six hundred miles farther south, and return with her.
3月4日清晨，土佐丸号驶入长江，退潮后，江水流速加快。引水员在舰桥上指挥着船沿着狭窄的南水道航行，水面浑浊得像雨后的波托马克河。在距郭士拉夫岛七十英里的地方，那里有一座灯塔和一个接收六条电报的电报站。我们穿过退潮的前沿，退潮的潮水在船身两侧形成一道强烈的对比线，一眼望不到边，横亘在船身两侧。然而，当时正是长江的低潮季节。在漫长的岁月中，这股浩瀚的河流一直汇聚到遥远的西藏，没有疏浚、驳船、燃料或人力，就将未使用或无法使用的土壤从两三千英里外人迹罕至的高地带到这里，并在海底、商业门户，建造出数英里世界上最肥沃的田野和花园。如今，这条河流蜿蜒流过六百英里开阔的平原，河面上遍布着耕作程度最高的田野，大型远洋轮船可以开往汉口、武昌、汉阳等城市，在半径不到四英里的范围内，一百七十七万人在这里生活和贸易；而小型轮船则可以航行一千英里，但高度却只有海拔 130 英尺。
On the morning of March 4th the Tosa Maru steamed out into the Yangtse river, already flowing with the increased speed of ebb tide. The pilots were on the bridge to guide her course along the narrow south channel through waters seemingly as brown and turbid as the Potomac after a rain. It was some distance beyond Gutzlaff Island, seventy miles to sea, where there is a lighthouse and a telegraph station receiving six cables, that we crossed the front of the out-going tide, showing in a sharp line of contrast stretching in either direction farther than the eye could see, across the course of the ship and yet it was the season of low water in this river. During long ages this stream of mighty volume has been loading upon itself in far-away Tibet, without dredge, barge, fuel or human effort, unused and there unusable soils, bringing them down from inaccessible hights across two or three thousand miles, building up with them, from under the sea, at the gateways of commerce, miles upon miles of the world’s most fertile fields and gardens. Today on this river, winding through six hundred miles of the most highly cultivated fields, laid out on river-built plains, go large ocean steamers to the city of Hankow-Wuchang-Hanyang where 1,770,000 people live and trade within a radius less than four miles; while smaller steamers push on a thousand miles and are then but 130 feet above sea level.
即使现在，在洋流、潮汐和人类活动的作用下，这些褐色浑浊的海水仍在迅速形成肥沃的三角洲平原，为新的家园提供栖息之所。过去二十五年间，忠明岛每年长度增长约1800英尺，如今，一百万人在这片270平方英里的肥沃平原上生活，种植水稻、小麦、棉花和红薯，而五百年前，这里只是被淹没的河沙和淤泥。这里每平方英里就有3700人安居乐业。
Even now, with the aid of current, tide and man, these brown turbid waters are rapidly adding fertile delta plains for new homes. During the last twenty-five years Chungming island has grown in length some 1800 feet per year and today a million people are living and growing rice, wheat, cotton and sweet potatoes on 270 square miles of fertile plain where five hundred years ago were only submerged river sands and silt. Here 3700 people per square mile have acquired homes.
南行的航程在平静的海面上进行，当我们经过近海岛屿之间及其附近时，这些岛屿就像在日本一样，除了低矮的草本植物外，几乎没有其他植被，灌木稀少，几乎没有森林，也几乎没有其他绿色植物。哈里森船长告诉我，这些岛屿一年四季都看不到北方气候中常见的草绿色，然而这些岛屿位于夏季雨水充沛的地区，很难理解为什么这里的植被没有更茂盛。
The southward voyage was over a quiet sea and as we passed among and near the off-shore islands these, as seen in Japan, appeared destitute of vegetation other than the low herbaceous types with few shrubs and almost no forest growth and little else that gave the appearance of green. Captain Harrison informed me that at no time in the year are these islands possessed of the grass-green verdure so often seen in northern climates, and yet the islands lie in a region of abundant summer rain, making it hard to understand why there is not a more luxuriant growth.
3月7日，星期日清晨，我们经过第一批大型糖厂，驶入了狭长美丽的香港港。在这片十平方英里的水域中，停泊着五艘战舰、几艘大型远洋轮船、许多沿海船只以及众多小型船只，这些船只每年的吨位高达两三千万吨。然而，香港港正处于可怕的东印度台风的路径上，尽管位于一座高岛的北岸避风，但最近的一场台风却击沉了九艘船只，将二十三艘冲上岸，重创了二十一艘船只，对小型船只造成了巨大的破坏，并打捞出一千多名遇难者遗体。这就是 1906 年九月风暴造成的破坏。
Sunday morning, March 7th, passing first extensive sugar refineries, found us entering the long, narrow and beautiful harbor of Hongkong. Here, lying at anchor in the ten square miles of water, were five battleships, several large ocean steamers, many coastwise vessels and a multitude of smaller craft whose yearly tonnage is twenty to thirty millions. But the harbor lies in the track of the terrible East Indian typhoon and, although sheltered on the north shore of a high island, one of these storms recently sunk nine vessels, sent twenty-three ashore, seriously damaged twenty-one others, wrought great destruction among the smaller craft and over a thousand dead were recovered. Such was the destruction wrought by the September storm of 1906.
我们的轮船没有靠岸，但日本邮船株式会社的汽艇把我们送到了一座与西雅图颇为相似的城市，它地势险峻，地势狭小，位于绵延的海滨和陡峭的山坡之间。这里，人行道边就耸立着陡峭的悬崖，险峻得令人难以攀爬，悬崖上长满了种类繁多的蕨类植物、小竹子、棕榈树、藤蔓植物和许多开花灌木，松树和高大的榕树点缀其间，为这片热带风光增添了北方风光的美感。这片热带风光一直向上延伸，直至被一层薄雾笼罩，我们待在那里的时候，这层薄雾一直笼罩着这座城市、港口，一直延伸到新九龙和旧九龙。
Our steamer did not go to dock but the Nippon Yusen Kaisha’s launch transferred us to a city much resembling Seattle in possessing a scant footing between a long sea front and high steep mountain slopes behind. Here cliffs too steep to climb rise from the very sidewalk and are covered with a great profusion and variety of ferns, small bamboo, palms, vines, many flowering shrubs, all interspersed with pine and great banyan trees that do so much toward adding the beauty of northern landscapes to the tropical features which reach upward until hidden in a veil of fog that hung, all of the time we were there, over the city, over the harbor and stretched beyond Old and New Kowloon.
香港岛长约11英里，宽仅2至5英里。信号杆所在的山峰高出街道1825英尺，山顶缆车由此上行。缆车悬挂在一条坚固的缆绳两端，每隔15至20分钟，一辆车就会上坡，另一辆车就会下坡，方便乘客与山下的商铺以及山上环境优美、气候宜人的住宅进行通讯。沿着城市上方的山坡，还有非常优质的道路，这些道路经过精心铺设，并设有混凝土排水沟和桥梁。人们可以步行、骑马、乘坐人力车或轿子，但马车太窄，无法通行。我们沿着跑马地的一侧登上其中一辆车，绕过它的源头，再从另一侧下来。我们只能偶尔透过渐渐散去的雾气瞥见山顶，但俯瞰城市，远眺港口和停泊的船只，以及从高架桥上上下下欣赏众多峡谷的景色，这些景色是任何城市居民所能欣赏到的最精致、最罕见的。当时正是鸟类迁徙季节的开始，树木和灌木丛中繁衍生息，物种繁多。
Hongkong island is some eleven miles long and but two to five miles wide, while the peak carrying the signal staff rises 1,825 feet above the streets from which ascends the Peak tramway, where, hanging from opposite ends of a strong cable, one car rises up the slope and another descends every fifteen to twenty minutes, affording communication with business houses below and homes in beautiful surroundings and a tempered climate above. Extending along the slopes of the mountains, too, above the city, are very excellent roads, carefully graded, provided with concrete gutters and bridges, along which one may travel on foot, on horseback, by ricksha or sedan chair, but too narrow for carriages. Over one of these we ascended along one side of Happy Valley, around its head and down the other side. Only occasionally could we catch glimpses of the summit through the lifting fog but the views, looking down and across the city and beyond the harbor with its shipping, and up and down the many ravines from viaducts, are among the choicest and rarest ever made accessible to the residents of any city. It was the beginning of the migratory season for birds, and trees and shrubbery thronged with many species.
在香港，我们看到许多妇女和男人一起从事繁重的体力劳动，比如把碎石和沙子搬运上陡峭的斜坡，用于混凝土和碎石工程，她们要从码头走很远的距离，但她们没有受到折磨，也没有被缠足弄得无法行动。和男人一样，她们的身材比上海的大多数人要矮小，与美国的中国人很相似。男女双方都敏捷、结实、强壮。在这里，我们第一次看到在露天街道上锯木头，就像图 33中显示的那样，人们正在从樟木上锯出宽木板。在潮湿而已经很暖和的天气里，男人们都光着上身，四肢裸露到膝盖以上，每个人都带着一条大毛巾擦去大量的汗水。
Many of the women in Hongkong were seen engaged in such heavy manual labor with the men as carrying crushed rock and sand, for concrete and macadam work, up the steep street slopes long distances from the dock, but they were neither tortured nor incapacitated by bound feet. Like the men, they were of smaller stature than most seen at Shanghai and closely resemble the Chinese in the United States, Both sexes are agile, wiry and strong. Here we first saw lumber sawing in the open streets after the manner shown in Fig. 33, where wide boards were being cut from camphor logs. In the damp, already warm weather the men were stripped to the waist, their limbs bare to above the knee, and each carried a large towel for wiping away the profuse perspiration.
图 33.—中国锯木材的常用方法。
Fig. 33.—Usual method of sawing lumber in China.
也是在这里，我们第一次见到了用于搭建四层和六层建筑的非凡脚手架，无需锯子、锤子或钉子即可搭建；不会损坏或浪费木材，建造和拆除的劳动力也最少。杆子和竹竿两端重叠捆绑在一起，无需切割或钉子即可固定任何间距或高度，并且可以随时拆除，绝对不会浪费。所有部件均可重复使用，除非是用于捆绑构件的材料。在建造六层花岗岩建筑时，人们沿着倾斜的楼梯，从一个脚手架到另一个脚手架，将砂浆装在篮子里，由男男女女扛在肩上，用竹竿吊着。在英属香港，这种升降机是最便宜的，因为那里有充足的劳动力。
It was here, too, that we first met the remarkable staging for the erection of buildings of four and six stories, set up without saw, hammer or nail; without injury to or waste of lumber and with the minimum of labor in construction and removal. Poles and bamboo stems were lashed together with overlapping ends, permitting any interval or hight to be secured without cutting or nailing, and admitting of ready removal with absolutely no waste, all parts being capable of repeated use unless it be some of the materials employed in tying members. Up inclined stairways, from staging to staging, in the erection of six-story granite buildings, mortar was being carried in baskets swinging from bamboo poles on the shoulders of men and women, as the cheapest hoists available in English Hongkong where there is willing human labor and to spare.
图 34——香港岛跑马地，有梯田花园和散落的住宅。
Fig. 34.—Happy Valley, Hongkong Island, with its terraced gardens and scattered dwellings.
新泽西州制造的胜家缝纫机，在香港和其他城市的许多华人商店里都能看到，这些商店由华人经营，预付运费，价格是美国零售价的三分之二。这表明，制造商在支付运费后，通过销售自制产品赚取了丰厚的利润，同时，在异教地区进行大规模贸易，也获得了丰厚的回报。
The Singer sewing machine, manufactured in New Jersey, was seen in many Chinese shops in Hongkong and other cities, operated by Chinese men and women, purchased, freight prepaid, at two-thirds the retail price in the United States. Such are the indications of profit to manufacturers on the home sale of home-made goods while at the same time reaping good returns from a large trade in heathen lands, after paying the freight.
图 35.——中国香港跑马地花店花园里的雕塑花卉。
Fig. 35.—Statuary floral pieces in florist’s garden, Happy Valley, Hongkong, China.
工业化的中国、韩国和日本没有我们每周的休息日。星期天下午，我们在欢乐谷散步，俯瞰梯田和小块田地。我们看到男男女女忙着为新作物翻土，采摘蔬菜运往市场，用液体肥料喂养植物，甚至灌溉某些作物，尽管天气潮湿、多雾、多阵雨。转过山谷，一处有围墙的围场吸引了我们的注意。绕道下坡，我们来到一个花店的花园，花园里种着一排排半灌木状的大型盆栽观叶植物，如图 35所示，它们被培植成真人大小的人形，有四肢、手臂和躯干，脚、手和头上装饰着上釉的彩色瓷器。这些植物和许多其他盆栽植物及树木，包括矮生品种，在中国各地的户外格子棚下生长，出售给富裕的中国家庭。
Industrial China, Korea and Japan do not observe our weekly day of rest and during our walk around Happy Valley on Sunday afternoon, looking down upon its terraced gardens and tiny fields, we saw men and women busy fitting the soil for new crops, gathering vegetables for market, feeding plants with liquid manure and even irrigating certain crops, notwithstanding the damp, foggy, showery weather. Turning the head of the valley, attention was drawn to a walled enclosure and a detour down the slope brought us to a florist’s garden within which were rows of large potted foliage plants of semi-shrubbery habit, seen in Fig. 35, trained in the form of life-size human figures with limbs, arms and trunk provided with highly glazed and colored porcelain feet, hands and head. These, with many other potted plants and trees, including dwarf varieties, are grown under out-door lattice shelters in different parts of China, for sale to the wealthy Chinese families.
图 36.—香港跑马地常见的一种园林文化。
Fig 36.—A fair type of garden culture seen in Happy Valley, Hongkong.
图 37——用于收集液体肥料的容器，其右侧有一堆灰烬和一堆用于给花园施肥的马厩肥料。
Fig. 37.—Receptacles for collecting liquid manure, and at their right a pile of ashes and a pile of stable manure for fertilizing the garden.
图36显示了耕作多么彻底，花园的布置多么高效和细致，以及土地的密度如何接近其生产能力的上限；当人们停下来研究这些花园的细节时，他会期待它的建造者是一个井然有序、细心、节俭和勤奋的人，无论他的工作多么艰巨或他的一天多么漫长，他都能从他的创造中获得不少满足感。如果他在花园里，或者有人遇见他在他那位职责和报酬决定的家中，你可能会感到失望，或感到自己受到了不友善的评判。但谁会冒着失去如此光鲜亮丽、如此受人尊敬的名声的风险呢？很多时候，当我们漫步在田野和花园中，与这些饱受误解、歪曲和低估的老人在一起时，当我们之间共同利益的纽带被认可时，我们脸上流露出一种精神，这种精神抛开了衣着和环境，站出来的人凭借坚韧不拔的精神和罕见的智慧，养活了千百万人，并承担了几个世纪以来由耻辱和不必要的战争征收的沉重赋税。不仅如此，更重要的是，他保持了人类种子的活力，并将它们培育成如此坚固的树干，使进步的潮流不顾堆积如山的浮木，沿着文明的最佳利益前进。
How thorough is the tillage, how efficient and painstaking the garden fitting, and how closely the ground is crowded to its upper limit of producing power are indicated in Fig. 36; and when one stops and studies the detail in such gardens he expects in its executor an orderly, careful, frugal and industrious man, getting not a little satisfaction out of his creations however arduous his task or prolonged his day. If he is in the garden or one meets him at the house, clad as the nature of his duties and compensation have determined, you may be disappointed or feel arising an unkind judgment. But who would risk a reputation so clad and so environed? Many were the times, during our walks in the fields and gardens among these old, much misunderstood, misrepresented and undervalued people, when the bond of common interest was recognized between us, that there showed through the face the spirit which put aside both dress and surroundings and the man stood forth who, with fortitude and rare wisdom, is feeding the millions and who has carried through centuries the terrible burden of taxes levied by dishonor and needless wars. Nay, more than this, the man stood forth who has kept alive the seeds of manhood and has nourished them into such sturdy stock as has held the stream of progress along the best interests of civilization in spite of the drift-wood heaped upon it.
这些人不仅极其细心细致地耕耘田地和花园，以便种植作物，而且他们更加谨慎地照料一切可能成为土壤肥料或作物养料的东西，除非它们能提供更有价值的服务。他们会花费不菲的费用来提供如图37所示的容器，这些容器不仅用于接收自家的粪便以及可能购买或以其他方式获得的粪便，还可以储存任何其他可以作为植物养料的液体。在这些陶罐的右侧，还有一堆灰烬和一堆肥料。所有这些材料都被保存起来，并以最有利的方式用于肥沃土壤或滋养正在生长的植物。
Not only are these people extremely careful and painstaking in fitting their fields and gardens to receive the crop, but they are even more scrupulous in their care to make everything that can possibly serve as fertilizer for the soil, or food for the crop being grown, do so unless there is some more remunerative service it may render. Expense is incurred to provide such receptacles as are seen in Fig. 37 for receiving not only the night soil of the home and that which may be bought or otherwise procured, but in which may be stored any other fluid which can serve as plant food. On the right of these earthenware jars too is a pile of ashes and one of manure. All such materials are saved and used in the most advantageous ways to enrich the soil or to nourish the plants being grown.
通常，液态肥料必须用水稀释到一定程度才能“浇灌”（中国人常说的），因此需要充足便捷的水源。图38中展示了其中一种，图中的中国人采用现代镀锌铁管将水从欢乐谷（Happy Valley）的山坡引到花园。水箱旁边是一些带盖的桶，用来盛装粪便，这些粪便可能要走一英里多远，先稀释后再施肥。但更常见的供水方法是将水沿着地面的水渠或沟渠引到梯田或花园一角的一个小水库，如图39所示，水被储存在那里，多余的水则从梯田引到另一梯田，为每层梯田提供持续的供水。在版画的右上角可以看到两个肥料容器，第三个容器靠近水库。下层梯田和上层梯田种植的是西洋菜。每年的这个时候，在欢乐谷的梯田花园里，这是种植最广泛的作物之一。
Generally the liquid manures must be diluted with water to a greater or less extent before they are “fed”, as the Chinese say, to their plants, hence there is need of an abundant and convenient water supply. One of these is seen in Fig. 38, where the Chinaman has adopted the modern galvanized iron pipe to bring water from the mountain slope of Happy Valley to his garden. By the side of this tank are the covered pails in which the night soil was brought, perhaps more than a mile, to be first diluted and then applied. But the more general method for supplying water is that of leading it along the ground in channels or ditches to a small reservoir in one corner of a terraced field or garden, as seen in Fig. 39, where it is held and the surplus led down from terrace to terrace, giving each its permanent supply. At the upper right corner of the engraving may be seen two manure receptacles and a third stands near the reservoir. The plants on the lower terrace are water cress and those above the same. At this time of the year, on the terraced gardens of Happy Valley, this is one of the crops most extensively grown.
图 38.—用四分之三英寸的铁管从山上引水，用于稀释液体肥料和灌溉花园。
Fig. 38.—Water brought from mountain side in three-fourths inch iron pipe to use in diluting liquid manure and in garden irrigation.
在这些花园和孤零零的房屋之间穿行，我们经过一个猪圈，猪圈的地面铺着光滑平整的石板，刚刚被仔细地清洗干净，就像房子的地板一样。虽然我无法了解有关此案的其他信息，但我毫不怀疑，从这块地板上洗下来的污渍一定被仔细地收集起来，并被送到某个容器里，作为植物的养料。
Walking among these gardens and isolated homes, we passed a pig pen provided with a smooth, well-laid stone floor that had just been washed scrupulously clean, like the floor of a house. While I was not able to learn other facts regarding this case, I have little doubt that the washings from this floor had been carefully collected and taken to some receptacle to serve as a plant food.
三月八日阴云密布的傍晚，我们离开香港前往广州，回首望去，景色美得令人窒息。我们驶离了三座城市：一座是灯火通明的香港，它依偎在陡峭的山坡上，宛如一片星空，点缀着浩瀚的群星，星等浩瀚，最高可达三倍木星；另一座是新旧九龙，位于港口对岸；在这两座城市之间，两岸被一片广阔的空旷水域隔开，是第三座城市，它是海峡中部一座遍布舢板、帆船和各种沿海船只的城市，它们按照警方的规定，随着日落被划分成不同的街区和街道，但到了清晨，它们又会重新散开。夜间，过了规定的时间，任何人不得离岸穿越这片空旷的水域，除非从某些码头出发并经警方许可，警方会记录舢板的号码和船上人员的姓名。港口上空，三盏巨大的探照灯正在扫视，令人好奇的是，那些帆船和其他船只突然迸发出耀眼的光芒，如同无数巨大的萤火虫，随着灯光的闪烁而消失又重新出现。就这样，海峡中部的城市灯火通明，治安良好，人们也采取措施，减少夜间离开码头，前往海峡某艘船只，却从此杳无音讯的不法行为。
Looking backward as we left Hongkong for Canton on the cloudy evening of March 8th, the view was wonderfully beautiful. We were drawing away from three cities, one, electric-lighted Hongkong rising up the steep slopes, suggesting a section of sky set with a vast array of stars of all magnitudes up to triple Jupiters; another, old and new Kowloon on the opposite side of the harbor; and between these two, separated from either shore by wide reaches of wholly unoccupied water, lay the third, a mid-strait city of sampans, junks and coastwise craft of many kinds segregated, in obedience to police regulation, into blocks and streets with each setting sun, but only to scatter again with the coming morn. At night, after a fixed hour, no one is permitted to leave shore and cross the vacant water strip except from certain piers and with the permission of the police, who take the number of the sampan and the names of its occupants. Over the harbor three large search lights were sweeping and it was curious to see the junks and other craft suddenly burst into full blazes of light, like so many monstrous fire-flies, to disappear and reappear as the lights came and went. Thus is the mid-strait city lighted and policed and thus have steps been taken to lessen the number of cases of foul play where people have left the wharves at night for some vessel in the strait, never to be heard from again.
图 39.—一系列梯田，中间附近有一个小水库，前面有三个液体肥料容器，还有一片西洋菜床。
Fig. 39.—Series of terraces showing small water reservoir near center, three receptacles for liquid manure, and a bed of water cress in the foreground.
到广州的水路距离约九十英里，第二天清晨，我们的轮船在沙面的外国租界附近抛锚停泊。总领事阿莫斯·P·怀尔德好心给广州基督教学院发了一封电报，学院的小汽艇便接上了船，直接把我们送到了学院所在地——湖南岛。湖南岛位于广州市南部的大三角洲地带，西江、北江和东江历经数个世纪的冲积，形成了这片肥沃的土地。由于人口稠密，这片土地一直延伸到水边，土地一形成就被迅速占用，为这里提供了大量的食物、燃料和衣物原料。
Some ninety miles is the distance by water to Canton, and early the next morning our steamer dropped anchor off the foreign settlement of Shameen. Through the kindness of Consul-General Amos P. Wilder in sending a telegram to the Canton Christian College, their little steam launch met the boat and took us directly to the home of the college on Honam Island, lying in the great delta south of the city where sediments brought by the Si-kiang—west, Pei-kiang—north, and Tung-kiang—east—rivers through long centuries have been building the richest of land, which, because of the density of population, are squared up everywhere to the water’s edge and appropriated as fast as formed, and made to bring forth materials for food, fuel and raiment in vast quantities.
我们第一次踏足河南岛，便是在墓地之间，并由此真正了解了这些墓地。广州基督教学院就坐落在墓地之中，这些墓地虽然年代久远，却不允许被打扰，而校园的建设也必须等待获得许可才能移除墓地，或在并非最理想的地点建造建筑。牛群在墓地间吃草，一群约250只棕色的中国鹅，已经长到三分之二，由男孩们看守着，它们靠墓地和附近的水域为生。一只成年鹅在广州的售价为1.20墨西哥元，或不到52美分黄金，但即便如此，一个日薪只有10或15美分的劳动者又如何能养活家人呢？在这里，我们也看到了中国人坚持不懈、永不停歇的勤劳，他们守护着自己的土地、阳光和雨水，忙于生产必需品。在漫长的夏季，已经成熟了两季水稻的田地，经过艰苦的劳动（主要是手工劳动）被犁成了坚固的田垄（如图 40所示），以便还能收获第三季冬季作物——某种蔬菜。
It was on Honam Island that we walked first among the grave lands and came to know them as such, for Canton Christian College stands in the midst of graves which, although very old, are not permitted to be disturbed and the development of the campus must wait to secure permission to remove graves, or erect its buildings in places not the most desirable. Cattle were grazing among the graves and with them a flock of some 250 of the brown Chinese geese, two-thirds grown, was watched by boys, gleaning their entire living from the grave lands and adjacent water. A mature goose sells in Canton for $1.20, Mexican, or less than 52 cents, gold, but even then how can the laborer whose day’s wage is but ten or fifteen cents afford one for his family? Here, too, we saw the Chinese persistent, never-ending industry in keeping their land, their sunshine and their rain, with themselves, busy in producing something needful. Fields which had matured two crops of rice during the long summer, had been laboriously, and largely by hand labor, thrown into strong ridges as seen in Fig. 40, to permit still a third winter crop of some vegetable to be taken from the land.
图 40. 田野上已经结出了两季水稻，现在则种上了韭菜和其他蔬菜作为冬季作物。
Fig. 40.—Looking across fields which have borne two crops of rice, now ridged for leeks and other vegetables as a winter crop.
但这种密集、连续的耕作方式会导致土壤枯竭，需要维护和恢复可用的植物养分，或者添加大量可以快速转化为养分的物质。因此，在湖南岛的田野里，就像我们在跑马谷发现的那样，大量证据表明，人们为植物施肥付出了极其细致的关注和辛勤的努力。图41中停在运河里的那艘船清晨从广州运来了两吨人粪，工人们正忙着施肥，稀释后的肥料以每英亩16000加仑的速度施用于韭菜田，所有肥料都装在前景中立着的桶里，用肩膀扛着。施肥时，人们用长柄勺舀取一加仑水，从桶里舀出，男人们赤脚，裤子卷到膝盖以上，在田间沟渠的水中蹚水。这是他们“给作物施肥”的方法之一，他们还有其他“给土壤施肥”的方法。
But this intensive, continuous cropping of the land spells soil exhaustion and creates demands for maintenance and restoration of available plant food or the adding of large quantities of something quickly convertible into it, and so here in the fields on Honam Island, as we had found in Happy Valley, there was abundant evidence of the most careful attention and laborious effort devoted to plant feeding. The boat standing in the canal in Fig. 41 had come from Canton in the early morning with two tons of human manure and men were busy applying it, in diluted form, to beds of leeks at the rate of 16,000 gallons per acre, all carried on the shoulders in such pails as stand in the foreground. The material is applied with long-handled dippers holding a gallon, dipping it from the pails, the men wading, with bare feet and trousers rolled above the knees, in the water of the furrows between the beds. This is one of their ways of “feeding the crop,” and they have other methods of “manuring the soil.”
图 41——湖南岛运河中满载人类排泄物的船，这些排泄物是从广州运来的，用于喂养冬季蔬菜。
Fig. 41.—Boat load of human waste in canal on Honam Island, brought from Canton and being used in feeding winter vegetables.
我们第一次见到的就是在湖南岛。这里大量的运河淤泥被船收集起来，运到田地里处理，然后沥干后再分发。用于灌溉农作物和施肥的淤泥都是废弃物，阻碍了该地区的工业发展，但中国人让它们承担起维持当地生活的重要职责。人类的排泄物必须处理掉。他们把排泄物回归土壤。我们则将其排入大海。这样做，他们每百万成年人口每天可以节省超过一吨的磷（2712磅）和超过两吨的钾（4488磅）用于植物养分。淤泥堆积在运河里，阻碍了水流。他们必须保持开放。淤泥富含有机质，如果施用于田地，可以增加土壤的腐殖质，同时提高其水位，使其高于河流和运河，从而改善排水；这样，他们就可以利用原本是废物的东西，使原本必须用于处理这些废物的劳动变得有回报。
One of these we first met on Honam Island. Large amounts of canal mud are here collected in boats and brought to the fields to be treated and there left to drain and dry before distributing. Both the material used to feed the crop and that used for manuring the land are waste products, hindrances to the industry of the region, but the Chinese make them do essential duty in maintaining its life. The human waste must be disposed of. They return it to the soil. We turn it into the sea. Doing so, they save for plant feeding more than a ton of phosphorus (2712 pounds) and more than two tons of potassium (4488 pounds) per day for each million of adult population. The mud collects in their canals and obstructs movement. They must be kept open. The mud is highly charged with organic matter and would add humus to the soil if applied to the fields, at the same time raising their level above the river and canal, giving them better drainage; thus are they turning to use what is otherwise waste, causing the labor which must be expended in disposal to count in a remunerative way.
清晨，我们乘船前往广州基督教学院和其他三所学校，并获准在运河和河流上游览。途中，一切都显得如此奇特、迷人，充满了人情味。广东水上居民的惊喜，与其说是数量众多，不如说是她们身形轻盈、肌肉发达、眼神明亮、面容欢快，尤其是在那些老少皆宜的妇女中。几乎总能看到一两个女人，通常是母女，更多时候是祖母，她们满脸皱纹，有时头发灰白，但身材魁梧，行动敏捷，充满活力，她们在划着帆船、游艇和舢板。有时，我们会看到丈夫和妻子，很多时候，当船只既是家用船又是商务船时，我们会看到全家人聚在一起。小孩子们从意想不到的窥视孔里往外看，或者用一根足够长的绳子拴在腰带上蹒跚而行，以防落水。猫也被拴着，也一样。母鸡也伸长脖子，透过悬垂的格子船尾，渴望着它们无法到达的景色。男人、女人、男孩和女孩都光着头，赤着脚，穿着短裤，衣着也大同小异，展现出同样精湛的桨技。孩子们从小就开始日夜在潮汐冲刷的溪流和运河上玩耍，沐浴在雾气和云层所能给予的阳光下，远离街道的尘土和污秽，似乎孩子们如果能活下来，就必须长得强壮。女人的外表不知为何给人一种印象，她们比男人更有活力，精神也更好。
During the early morning ride to Canton Christian College and three others which we were permitted to enjoy in the launch on the canal and river waters, everything was again strange, fascinating and full of human interest. The Cantonese water population was a surprise, not so much for its numbers as for the lithe, sinewy forms, bright eyes and cheerful faces, particularly among the women, young and old. Nearly always one or more women, mother and daughter oftenest, grandmother many times, wrinkled, sometimes grey, but strong, quick and vigorous in motion, were manning the oars of junks, houseboats and sampans. Sometimes husband and wife and many times the whole family were seen together when the craft was both home and business boat as well. Little children were gazing from most unexpected peek holes, or they toddled tethered from a waist belt at the end of as much rope as would arrest them above water, should they go overboard. And the cat was similarly tied. Through an overhanging latticed stern, too, hens craned their necks, longing for scenes they could not reach. With bare heads, bare feet, in short trousers and all dressed much alike, men, women, boys and girls showed equal mastery of the oar. Beginning so young, day and night in the open air on the tide-swept streams and canals, exposed to all of the sunshine the fogs and clouds will permit, and removed from the dust and filth of streets, it would seem that if the children survive at all they must develop strong. The appearance of the women somehow conveyed the impression that they were more vigorous and in better fettle than the men.
售卖各种热气腾腾菜肴的船只随处可见。其中一种是用绿叶包扎的米饭，三小包一捆，用一根植物纤维悬挂着，从锅里拿出热腾腾的米饭递给买主，买主可能是路过的帆船上的人，也可能是进出船只的人。另一个人会买热水泡茶，还有一个人，只需一枚钱，就能拿到一小块从水里拧干的棉布，用来擦脸擦手，然后再还给他。
Boats selling many kinds of steaming hot dishes were common. Among these was rice tied in green leaf wrappers, three small packets in a cluster suspended by a strand of some vegetable fiber, to be handed hot from the cooker to the purchaser, some one on a passing junk or on an in-coming or out-going boat. Another would buy hot water for a brew of tea, while still another, and for a single cash, might be handed a small square of cotton cloth, wrung hot from the water, with which to wipe his face and hands and then be returned.
也许没有什么比他们日常零售交易中使用的最小货币单位现金的价值更能衡量这里维持生计斗争的激烈程度，也更能表明他们实行的微小节约。在我们的太平洋沿岸，人们对小额储蓄的关注可能比世界上任何其他地方都要少，镍币是常用的最小硬币，20 枚镍币兑换 1 美元。在美国其他地区和大多数英语国家，一百美分或半便士相当于一美元。在俄罗斯，170 戈比、墨西哥 200 分、法国 250 两生丁和奥匈帝国 250 两赫勒硬币相当于一美元；而在德国，400 芬尼和印度 400 派才能兑换一美元。此外，芬兰的 500 便士、保加利亚的斯托丁基、意大利的森特西米和荷兰的半美分相当于一美元；但在中国，日常小额金融交易是以更小的单位来衡量的，即现金，需要 1500 到 2000 现金才能等于美元，其购买力每天都随着白银价格的波动而波动。
Perhaps nothing better measures the intensity of the maintenance struggle here, and better indicates the minute economies practiced, than the value of their smallest currency unit, the Cash, used in their daily retail transactions. On our Pacific coast, where less thought is given to little economies than perhaps anywhere else in the world, the nickel is the smallest coin in general use, twenty to the dollar. For the rest of the United States and in most English speaking countries one hundred cents or half pennies measure an equal value. In Russia 170 kopecks, in Mexico 200 centavos, in France 250 two-centime pieces, and in Austria-Hungary 250 two-heller coins equal the United States dollar; while in Germany 400 pfennigs, and in India 400 pie are required for an equal value. Again 500 penni in Finland and of stotinki in Bulgaria, of centesimi in Italy and of half cents in Holland equal our dollar; but in China the small daily financial transactions are measured against a much smaller unit, their Cash, 1500 to 2000 of which are required to equal the United States dollar, their purchasing power fluctuating daily with the price of silver.
在山东省，当我们向农民询问农作物的售价时，他们的回答是这样的：“四百二十斤小麦三十五贯钱，一千斤麦草十二至十四贯钱。”当时，根据我的翻译，一贯钱的价值是墨西哥的四角，由此看来，大约有250这些硬币穿在绳子上。我们曾两次看到一辆满载着成串现金的独轮车在上海街头穿梭，车架上裸露着现金，暗示与其说是钱，不如说是铜链。在青岛的一个货仓或仓库里，货物从轮船上转运过来，搬运工们正在用这些硬币领取工资。出纳员站在门口，脚边放着一个装着半蒲式耳零钱的粮食袋。他一只手从码头工人手中接过竹签，另一只手支付服务费。
In the Shantung province, when we inquired of the farmers the selling prices of their crops, their replies were given like this: “Thirty-five strings of cash for 420 catty of wheat and twelve to fourteen strings of cash for 1000 catty of wheat straw.” At this time, according to my interpreter, the value of one string of cash was 40 cents Mexican, from which it appears that something like 250 of these coins were threaded on a string. Twice we saw a wheelbarrow heavily loaded with strings of cash being transported through the streets of Shanghai, lying exposed on the frame, suggesting chains of copper more than money. At one of the go-downs or warehouses in Tsingtao, where freight was being transferred from a steamer, the carriers were receiving their pay in these coin. The pay-master stood in the doorway with half a bushel of loose cash in a grain sack at his feet. With one hand he received the bamboo tally-sticks from the stevedores and with the other paid the cash for service rendered.
之前提到过买热水的事。我们乘坐的舢板由一对母女驾驶，她们把我们送上岸。舢板的中段布置得像个小客厅，餐具柜上摆放着我们无火炊具的完整模型，用来保温煮茶的开水。这种设备和习俗在这里已有数百年历史，在这些国家，开水，比如茶，是普遍的饮品，无疑是为了预防伤寒和相关疾病。很少有蔬菜生吃，几乎所有食物都是热的，或者如果没有腌制或盐渍，都是刚煮熟的。船屋肉店穿梭于运河上的众多帆船之间。这些船屋设有一个与运河水自由流通的隔间，鱼在那里被活活地饲养直至售出。在街市上，鱼也被放在大桶里，这些桶里的水会通过细流中高架容器中落下的水进行系统性充气。活鱼甚至可能在买家面前被切片，然后未售出的部分被放回水中。家禽大多是活的，但我们看到很多都经过处理和烹制，颜色均匀，呈深棕色，看起来像是烤熟了的，悬挂在广州狭窄街道的市场里，在遮阳篷下遮挡着烈日，阳光透过半透明的牡蛎壳格子透进来。也许这些家禽是用热油烹制的，上桌前也会经过同样的加热。无论如何，它们绝对是完美的。显然，这些人严格遵守许多非常基本的卫生习惯。
Reference has been made to buying hot water. In a sampan managed by a woman and her daughter, who took us ashore, the middle section of the boat was furnished in the manner of a tiny sitting-room, and on the sideboard sat the complete embodiment of our fireless cookers, keeping boiled water hot for making tea. This device and the custom are here centuries old and throughout these countries boiled water, as tea, is the universal drink, adopted no doubt as a preventive measure against typhoid fever and allied diseases. Few vegetables are eaten raw and nearly all foods are taken hot or recently cooked if not in some way pickled or salted. Houseboat meat shops move among the many junks on the canals. These were provided with a compartment communicating freely with the canal water where the fish were kept alive until sold. At the street markets too, fish are kept alive in large tubs of water systematically aerated by the water falling from an elevated receptacle in a thin stream. A live fish may even be sliced before the eyes of a purchaser and the unsold portion returned to the water. Poultry is largely retailed alive although we saw much of it dressed and cooked to a uniform rich brown, apparently roasted, hanging exposed in the markets of the very narrow streets in Canton, shaded from the hot sun under awnings admitting light overhead through translucent oyster-shell latticework. Perhaps these fowl had been cooked in hot oil and before serving would be similarly heated. At any rate it is perfectly clear that among these people many very fundamental sanitary practices are rigidly observed.
一个我们并不完全了解的事实是，无论我们走到哪里，家蝇都很少。我们在中国、韩国和日本度过了一个夏天，从未像今年这样少受苍蝇骚扰。或许我们的经历只是个例，但如果是这样，那也不能归咎于我们访问的季节，因为我们在四月初的南佛罗里达州就发现苍蝇数量众多，以至于在餐桌上使用苍蝇刷非常必要。如果这些国家普遍实行的严格废物管理，能够像我们的经验所表明的那样，减少苍蝇的滋扰及其对健康的威胁，那么这可谓一大收获。我们每年繁殖数百万只苍蝇，直到它们变得令人无法忍受，然后又花费数百万美元购买纱窗和灭蝇药，但这却徒劳地降低了苍蝇的强度和危害。
One fact which we do not fully understand is that, wherever we went, house flies were very few. We never spent a summer with so little annoyance from them as this one in China, Korea and Japan. It may be that our experience was exceptional but, if so, it could not be ascribed to the season of our visit for we have found flies so numerous in southern Florida early in April as to make the use of the fly brush at the table very necessary. If the scrupulous husbanding of waste refuse so universally practiced in these countries reduces the fly nuisance and this menace to health to the extent which our experience suggests, here is one great gain. We breed flies in countless millions each year, until they become an intolerable nuisance, and then expend millions of dollars on screens and fly poison which only ineffectually lessen the intensity and danger of the evil.
广州运河和商店中使用的机械设备表明，尽管其中许多都是最简单的形式，但中国人拥有高超的建设能力。图42中简单而高效的脚力驱动很好地说明了这一点。图中一位父亲和他的两个儿子正在驾驶一台灌溉泵，以每十小时七英亩半英寸的速度抽水，成本（包括工资和食物）为36到45分金币。这里还有大型的尾轮客船，可搭载30到100人，由同样的脚力驱动，但横放在船尾，工人们根据船的大小排成单排或双排长队工作。这些船的票价为1分金币，行驶15英里，相当于我们2分金币铁路票价的三十分之一。广州及其周边地区的运河和水道的疏浚和清理也同样依靠人力，通常由居住在疏浚船上的家庭完成。他们使用一种由坚固的竹子制成的挖泥船编织成滑动式双马路面刮泥机形状的条带，由一根长长的竹柄控制。挖泥机由一根绳索缠绕在伸出的脚力轴上，沿底部拖动，由三人或三人以上推动。当铲子到达轴心并从水中抬起时，它会被摆动到船上，清空泥浆，并通过一个类似老式扫井器的长臂将其拉回，该长臂由一根悬挂在杠杆下端的绳索操纵，铲子则在另一端摆动。从城市运河和水渠收集到的大部分泥浆被运往稻田和桑田，这些稻田和桑田遍布周边乡村，面积达数平方英里。这样，水渠保持畅通，田地稳步长高至洪水位以上，而沉积物中携带的植物养分和有机物则维持着它们的生产力。
The mechanical appliances in use on the canals and in the shops of Canton demonstrate that the Chinese possess constructive ability of a high order, notwithstanding so many of these are of the simplest forms. This statement is well illustrated in the simple yet efficient foot-power seen in Fig. 42, where a father and his two sons are driving an irrigation pump, lifting water at the rate of seven and a half acre-inches per ten hours, and at a cost, including wage and food, of 36 to 45 cents, gold. Here, too, were large stern-wheel passenger boats, capable of carrying thirty to one hundred people, propelled by the same foot-power but laid crosswise of the stern, the men working in long single or double lines, depending on the size of the boat. On these the fare was one cent, gold, for a fifteen mile journey, a rate one-thirtieth our two-cent railway tariff. The dredging and clearing of the canals and water channels in and about Canton is likewise accomplished with the same foot-power, often by families living on the dredge boats. A dipper dredge is used, constructed of strong bamboo strips woven into the form of a sliding, two-horse road scraper, guided by a long bamboo handle. The dredge is drawn along the bottom by a rope winding about the projecting axle of the foot-power, propelled by three or more people. When the dipper reaches the axle and is raised from the water it is swung aboard, emptied and returned by means of a long arm like the old well sweep, operated by a cord depending from the lower end of the lever, the dipper swinging from the other. Much of the mud so collected from the canals and channels of the city is taken to the rice and mulberry fields, many square miles of which occupy the surrounding country. Thus the channels are kept open, the fields grow steadily higher above flood level, while their productive power is maintained by the plant food and organic matter carried in the sediment.
图 42——中国的木制脚踏动力，用于推动木链灌溉泵。
Fig. 42.—The wooden foot-power of China, being used to propel the wooden-chain irrigation pump.
男孩钮扣蜂鸣器所涉及的机械原理在广州及许多其他地方被应用于操作小型钻头，以及用于制造装饰品的研磨和抛光设备。用于钻金属的钻头安装在一根直杆上，杆通常由竹子制成，杆的上端安装一个圆形重物。钻头由一对绳子驱动，绳子的一端连接在动量重物的正下方，另一端固定在一根十字形手杆的两端，手杆的中心有一个孔，承载钻头的杆穿过该孔。将钻头固定在工作位置并转动杆，将两根绳子缠绕在钻头上，只需用双手向下按压手杆，绳子就会松开，从而使钻头旋转。在适当的时间释放压力，旋转重物的动量就会将绳子重新卷起，下一次向下按压即可使钻头再次投入使用。
The mechanical principle involved in the boy’s button buzz was applied in Canton and in many other places for operating small drills as well as in grinding and polishing appliances used in the manufacture of ornamental ware. The drill, as used for boring metal, is set in a straight shaft, often of bamboo, on the upper end of which is mounted a circular weight. The drill is driven by a pair of strings with one end attached just beneath the momentum weight and the other fastened at the ends of a cross hand-bar, having a hole at its center through which the shaft carrying the drill passes. Holding the drill in position for work and turning the shaft, the two cords are wrapped about it in such a manner that simple downward pressure on the hand bar held in the two hands unwinds the cords and thus revolves the drill. Relieving the pressure at the proper time permits the momentum of the revolving weight to rewind the cords and the next downward pressure brings the drill again into service.
IV.
UP THE SI-KIANG, WEST RIVER.
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3月10日上午，我们乘坐南宁号前往广西省梧州，沿西江（或称西江）逆流而上，航程220英里。南宁号是两艘定期往返两地的英国轮船之一，它的姊妹船在1906年夏天的一次航行中遭到海盗袭击，船上所有官员和头等舱乘客在用餐时全部遇难。据说，这次袭击的起因，或者说借口，是毁灭性的洪水导致的饥荒威胁。洪水摧毁了三角洲地区的稻米和桑树作物，并阻止了粪肥和豆饼作为肥料运往更远山区的茶园，从而导致该地区三种主要作物受损。为了避免此类悲剧再次发生，南宁号的头等舱舱室与船上其他舱室之间，用横跨甲板和舱口的厚重铁栅栏隔开。武装警卫站在紧锁的门口，第一舱房遮阳篷下的柱子上挂着剑，就像我们客车上的锯子和斧头一样。英国和中国的炮艇都在河上巡逻；所有中国乘客登船时都要接受搜查，看是否携带隐藏武器，即使有政府士兵，所有武器都会被扣押，直到旅程结束。几艘载着贵重货物的大型中国商船在河上经过，配备了小型火炮，当它们经过时从广州到三水的火车上，一位政府海盗侦探和我们坐在同一辆车上。
On the morning of March 10th we took passage on the Nanning for Wuchow, in Kwangsi province, a journey of 220 miles up the West river, or Sikiang. The Nanning is one of two English steamers making regular trips between the two places, and it was the sister boat which in the summer of 1906 was attacked by pirates on one of her trips and all of the officers and first class passengers killed while at dinner. The cause of this attack, it is said, or the excuse for it, was threatened famine resulting from destructive floods which had ruined the rice and mulberry crops of the great delta region and had prevented the carrying of manure and bean cake as fertilizers to the tea fields in the hill lands beyond, thus bringing ruin to three of the great staple crops of the region. To avoid the recurrence of such tragedies the first class quarters on the Nanning had been separated from the rest of the ship by heavy iron gratings thrown across the decks and over the hatchways. Armed guards stood at the locked gateways, and swords were hanging from posts under the awnings of the first cabin quarters, much as saw and ax in our passenger coaches. Both British and Chinese gunboats were patrolling the river; all Chinese passengers were searched for concealed weapons as they came aboard, even though Government soldiers, and all arms taken into custody until the end of the journey. Several of the large Chinese merchant junks which were passed, carrying valuable cargoes on the river, were armed with small cannon, and when riding by rail from Canton to Sam Shui, a government pirate detective was in our coach.
西江是中国乃至世界大河之一。在梧州，低水位时河宽近一英里，我们的轮船停泊在水深二十四英尺的浮码头上，码头用巨大的铁链牢牢固定，铁链沿着通往梧州市区的斜坡延伸三百英尺，这样，在雨季洪水位时，河水就会上涨二十六英尺。在蜿蜒流经水兴峡的一段狭窄河段，低水位时水深超过二十五俄丈，无法停泊，因此，在有雾的时候，船只只能等待天气转晴。河水高低起伏，限制了前往梧州的船只在低水位时吃水六英尺半，高水位时吃水十六英尺。
The Sikiang is one of the great rivers of China and indeed of the world. Its width at Wuchow at low water was nearly a mile and our steamer anchored in twenty-four feet of water to a floating dock made fast by huge iron chains reaching three hundred feet up the slope to the city proper, thus providing for a rise of twenty-six feet in the river at its flood stage during the rainy season. In a narrow section of river where it winds through Shui Hing gorge, the water at low stage has a depth of more than twenty-five fathoms, too deep for anchorage, so in times of prospective fog, boats wait for clearing weather. Fluctuations in the hight of the river limit vessels passing up to Wuchow to those drawing six and a half feet of water during the low stage, and at high stage to those drawing sixteen feet.
当西河带着泥沙从高地涌出，与北河和东河汇合时，它进入了一片广阔的三角洲平原，东西长约 80 英里，南北宽也差不多 80 英里。这片平原被开凿、筑堤、排水，变成了最肥沃的田地，每年可结出三茬或更多的庄稼。我们向西穿过这片三角洲地区，看到宽阔平坦的田野，田野四周筑有堤坝以防洪水，人们正在耕作，为即将到来的水稻收成做准备。在许多地方，护堤的田野上种着香蕉树，远处则像是占满整片土地的广阔果园。除了水和堤坝，我们很容易想象我们正在穿越早春播种时的西部大草原，这里散布的农庄很容易让人联想到远处的农庄；但走近房屋发现，屋顶和侧面都铺着稻草，建筑物周围有很多烟囱。堤坝上设置了许多防潮闸门，通常是双干闸门。
When the West river emerges from the high lands, with its burden of silt, to join its waters with those of the North and East rivers, it has entered a vast delta plain some eighty miles from east to west and nearly as many from north to south, and this has been canalized, diked, drained and converted into the most productive of fields, bearing three or more crops each year. As we passed westward through this delta region the broad flat fields, surrounded by dikes to protect them against high water, were being plowed and fitted for the coming crop of rice. In many places the dikes which checked off the fields were planted with bananas and in the distance gave the appearance of extensive orchards completely occupying the ground. Except for the water and the dikes it was easy to imagine that we were traversing one of our western prairie sections in the early spring, at seeding time, the scattered farm villages here easily suggested distant farmsteads; but a nearer approach to the houses showed that the roofs and sides were thatched with rice straw and stacks were very numerous about the buildings. Many tide gates were set in the dikes, often with double trunks.
有时我们会走近田地，看看田地是如何布局的。从大门出发，长长的水渠宽六到八英尺，有时延伸八十或一百杆。在这些水渠上，人们以直角开凿引水渠，在水渠之间耕作成两杆宽的长而直的土地，中间用水沟隔开。许多田地里长着八英尺高的甘蔗。中国人不精炼糖，而是将汁液煮沸直至凝固，然后将其制成类似巧克力或我们的棕色枫糖的糖饼。大量的甘蔗也被出口到北部省份，用席子或其他覆盖物包裹成捆，销往零售市场。甘蔗被切成短段，有时去皮，作为糖果直接用手吃。
At times we approached near enough to the fields to see how they were laid out. From the gates long canals, six to eight feet wide, led back sometimes eighty or a hundred rods. Across these and at right angles, head channels were cut and between them the fields were plowed in long straight lands some two rods wide, separated by water furrows. Many of the fields were bearing sugar cane standing eight feet high. The Chinese do no sugar refining but boil the sap until it will solidify, when it is run into cakes resembling chocolate or our brown maple sugar. Immense quantities of sugar cane, too, are exported to the northern provinces, in bundles wrapped with matting or other cover, for the retail markets where it is sold, the canes being cut in short sections and sometimes peeled, to be eaten from the hands as a confection.
这条河道的大部分路段过于宽阔，即使用望远镜也无法详细观察田间状况和作物。在这些路段，近代的堤坝通常看起来像是用石灰石块砌成的，但仔细观察就会发现，它们是由河道淤泥凿成的，并砌成略微倾斜的墙体。然而，随着时间的推移，这些淤泥会风化，堤坝会变成圆形的土墙。
Much of the way this water-course was too broad to permit detailed study of field conditions and crops, even with a glass. In such sections the recent dikes often have the appearance of being built from limestone blocks but a closer view showed them constructed from blocks of the river silt cut and laid in walls with slightly sloping faces. In time however the blocks weather and the dikes become rounded earthen walls.
我们经过一艘船上，看到两个男人，他们负责照管着一大群大约几百只小黄鸭。岸边停泊着一艘巨大的船屋，船屋四周环绕着悬垂式舷侧，船上堆放着一堆稻草和其他东西，构成了鸭子的漂浮之家。河上的居民大量以这种方式饲养鸭子和鹅。当鸭子需要转移到另一个觅食地时，就会用跳板把鸭群放到岸上，让它们上船过夜或在另一个地方登陆。
We passed two men in a boat, in charge of a huge flock of some hundreds of yellow ducklings. Anchored to the bank was a large houseboat provided with an all-around, over-hanging rim and on board was a stack of rice straw and other things which constituted the floating home of the ducks. Both ducks and geese are reared in this manner in large numbers by the river population. When it is desired to move to another feeding ground a gang plank is put ashore and the flock come on board to remain for the night or to be landed at another place.
沿着这片三角洲平原向西行驶大约五个小时，田地高出目前水位六到十英尺，我们到达了桑树区。这里的桑树成排种植，间隔约四英尺，更像小灌木，而不是乔木，很像棉花，这给我们的第一印象是，我们身处一片广阔的棉区。在地势较低、堤坝环绕的地区，一些田地的布局类似于古老的意大利或英国水草甸，沿着河床顶部有一条浅浅的灌溉沟，沿着分界线有更深的排水沟。在我们看到的新沟被挖开之前，桑树就占据了这片土地，行间的所有表面都均匀地铺上了用铁锹挖出的新土，土壤成块地基本没有被破坏。在图43中，我们可以看到在Canton和Samshui之间同样处理过的地表上种植的桑树，从沟里挖出的泥土被均匀地铺在植物之间和周围的整个表面上，就像用铁锹挖出来的一样。
About five hours journey westward in this delta plain, where the fields lie six to ten feet above the present water stage, we reached the mulberry district. Here the plants are cultivated in rows about four feet apart, having the habit of small shrubs rather than of trees, and so much resembling cotton that our first impression was that we were in an extensive cotton district. On the lower lying areas, surrounded by dikes, some fields were laid out in the manner of the old Italian or English water meadows, with a shallow irrigation furrow along the crest of the bed and much deeper drainage ditches along the division line between them. Mulberries were occupying the ground before the freshly cut trenches we saw were dug, and all the surface between the rows had been evenly overlaid with the fresh earth removed with the spade, the soil lying in blocks essentially unbroken. In Fig. 43 may be seen the mulberry crop on a similarly treated surface, between Canton and Samshui, with the earth removed from the trenches laid evenly over the entire surface between and around the plants, as it came from the spade.
图 43 桑树田，表面覆盖着从将土地分成多个田块的沟渠中挖取的新鲜泥土。
Fig. 43.—Field of mulberry having the surface covered with fresh earth taken from ditches dividing the land into beds.
沿着河流，不时可以看到通往水边的小路和台阶，距离水边不远的地方走了四分之一英里，我们数了数，有三十一个男人和女人用竹竿挑着篮子，这些篮子里的泥土是从水面以上的地方运来的。由于泥土被运到了高地的另一边，我们无法看到泥土的分布。我们毫不怀疑桑园里一定被泥土覆盖。就在这时，雨下起来了，几乎像变魔术一样，田野里长满了巨大的雨帽和小土，而以前这里是看不到人的。从一点到下午六点，我们不断地穿过这些桑园，桑园从我们的行进路线两侧绵延数英里，总面积一定非常大。但现在我们已经快到达三角洲的边缘了，桑园变成了种植谷物、豆类、豌豆和蔬菜的田地。
At frequent intervals along the river, paths and steps were seen leading to the water and within a distance of a quarter of a mile we counted thirty-one men and women carrying mud in baskets on bamboo poles swung across their shoulders, the mud being taken from just above the water line. The disposition of this material we could not see as it was carried beyond a rise in ground. We have little doubt that the mulberry fields were being covered with it. It was here that a rain set in and almost like magic the fields blossomed out with great numbers of giant rain hats and kittysols, where people had been unobserved before. From one o’clock until six in the afternoon we had travelled continuously through these mulberry fields stretching back miles from our line of travel on either hand, and the total acreage must have been very large. But we had now nearly reached the margin of the delta and the mulberries changed to fields of grain, beans, peas and vegetables.
离开三角洲地区后，前往梧州的剩余旅程是穿过一片丘陵地带。山坡从河岸附近开始陡峭上升，留下的耕地或易耕地相对较少。这些圆形、覆盖着泥土的山丘通常海拔五百到一千英尺，山坡和山顶通常长满矮小的草本植物和零星的小乔木，其中最常见的是松树，高度四到十六英尺。图44是该地区的典型景观。
After leaving the delta region the balance of the journey to Wuchow was through a hill country, the slopes rising steeply from near the river bank, leaving relatively little tilled or readily tillable land. Rising usually five hundred to a thousand feet, the sides and summits of the rounded, soil-covered hills were generally clothed with a short herbaceous growth and small scattering trees, oftenest pine, four to sixteen feet high, Fig. 44 being a typical landscape of the region.
这条河流沿岸的几个河段，存在着少数侵蚀严重的区域，形成了规模不小的裸露沟壑，但这些只是例外。我们不断惊叹于山坡的惊人陡峭，几乎处处都是凸起的圆形轮廓，土壤肥沃，沟壑稀少，完全被草本植物覆盖，点缀着小树。森林的缺失与其说是自然条件所致，不如说是人为因素造成的。
In several sections along the course of this river there are limited areas of intense erosion where naked gulleys of no mean magnitude have developed but these were exceptions and we were continually surprised at the remarkable steepness of the slopes, with convexly rounded contours almost everywhere, well mantled with soil, devoid of gulleys and completely covered with herbaceous growth dotted with small trees. The absence of forest growth finds its explanation in human influence rather than natural conditions.
在这条大河的整个丘陵地带，最典型、最持久的人类特征是沿着河岸的一堆堆灌木和一堆堆炉柴。燃料被堆放在河岸或装上船、驳船运往市场。柴火主要由松树枝制成，捆成捆，像谷物一样堆放。炉木通常是圆形的，由直径2到5英寸的树枝和树干剥皮制成。所有这些燃料都从偏远地区运到河里，沿着陡峭的滑坡倾泻而下，从远处看，这些滑坡类似于翻山越岭的小路，但过于陡峭，不适合通行。燃料被装上大型驳船，树枝被堆成垛子以防雨，但有一个隧道通向堆放它们的船屋，木材也同样用绳子捆扎在住所周围，如图44所示。木材运往广州和其他三角洲城市，而松树枝则被运往石灰窑和水泥窑，其中许多……这些树木位于河边。整棵树，包括树根和针叶，都必须保存下来并焚烧；不允许有任何浪费。
Throughout the hill-land section of this mighty river the most characteristic and persistent human features were the stacks of brush-wood and the piles of stove wood along the banks or loaded upon boats and barges for the market. The brush-wood was largely made from the boughs of pine, tied into bundles and stacked like grain. The stove wood was usually round, peeled and made from the limbs and trunks of trees two to five inches in diameter. All this fuel was coming to the river from the back country, sent down along steep slides which in the distance resemble paths leading over hills but too steep for travel. The fuel was loaded upon large barges, the boughs in the form of stacks to shed rain but with a tunnel leading into the house of the boat about which they were stacked, while the wood was similarly corded about the dwelling, as seen in Fig. 44. The wood was going to Canton and other delta cities while the pine boughs were taken to the lime and cement kilns, many of which were located along the river. Absolutely the whole tree, including the roots and the needles, is saved and burned; no waste is permitted.
图44 西江河上树木稀疏的山丘。船上载满了柴火；后面捆扎着一捆捆的松枝燃料。这些树都是小松树，下部枝条被砍下来用作燃料。
Fig. 44.—Scantily wooded hills on the Sikiang. Boatload of stove wood; stack of pine bough fuel in bundles behind. The trees are small pine from which the lower limbs have been cut for fuel.
南宁河上游的货物主要是在广州装运的灯芯草，像麦捆一样捆扎起来。这种植物生长在地势较低、较新的三角洲地区，种植方法与水稻种植类似，图45显示的是日本的田地。
The up-river cargo of the Nanning was chiefly matting rush, taken on at Canton, tied in bundles like sheaves of wheat. It is grown upon the lower, newer delta lands by methods of culture similar to those applied to rice, Fig. 45 showing a field as seen in Japan.
灯芯草被运往西江支流的一个乡村，轮船在上游四十五英里处遇到了一支从这个村庄开来的帆船队，那里居住着从事纺织业的家庭。回程时，帆船队再次与满载编织席子的轮船相遇。中国人使用一种简单而独特的方法来记录转运的包裹。每个搬运工带着两捆货物，会得到一对算盘木棍。跳板上坐着一个人，带着一个算盘箱，箱子分成二十个隔间，每个隔间可放五张算盘木棍，但不能再多了。当包裹离开轮船时，算盘木棍就会被放进算盘箱，直到装满一百张，然后再换一张。
The rushes were being taken to one of the country villages on a tributary of the Sikiang and the steamer was met by a flotilla of junks from this village, some forty-five miles up the stream, where the families live who do the weaving. On the return trip the flotilla again met the steamer with a cargo of the woven matting. In keeping record of packages transferred the Chinese use a simple and unique method. Each carrier, with his two bundles, received a pair of tally sticks. At the gang-plank sat a man with a tally-case divided into twenty compartments, each of which could receive five, but no more, tallies. As the bundles left the steamer the tallies were placed in the tally-case until it contained one hundred, when it was exchanged for another.
梧州是一座约有6.5万居民的城市，坐落在地势较高的地方，无论是从轮船码头还是从江面上都很难看到。前景中，码头的锚链横跨其上，居住着一群流动人口，许多人住在比印第安人的圆锥形帐篷还要简陋的棚屋里，但从事着各种各样的工作，许多水牛被拴在锚链上过夜。七月之前，这片地区的大部分地区都会被西江的洪水淹没。
Wuchow is a city of some 65,000 inhabitants, standing back on the higher ground, not readily visible from the steamer landing nor from the approach on the river. On the foreground, across which stretched the anchor chains of the dock, was living a floating population, many in shelters less substantial than Indian wigwams, but engaged in a great variety of work, and many water buffalo had been tied for the night along the anchor chains. Before July much of this area would lie beneath the flood waters of the Sikiang.
一位造船工人正在用他那简单有效的弓撑在船板上钻孔，以便安装船用销钉；另一位造船工人则将船板弯曲成合适的弧度。弓撑由一根竹竿组成，竹竿的一端装有钻头，另一端则配有肩托。用肩托将钻头压入工作台，用缠绕竹竿一圈的长弓弦来回拉动弓，从而快速轻松地旋转钻头。
Here a ship builder was using his simple, effective bow-brace, boring holes for the dowel pins in the planking for his ship, and another was bending the plank to the proper curvature. The bow-brace consisted of a bamboo stalk carrying the bit at one end and a shoulder rest at the other. Pressing the bit to its work with the shoulder, it was driven with the string of a long bow wrapped once around the stalk by drawing the bow back and forth, thus rapidly and readily revolving the bit.
图 45——日本的风景，描绘了稻田和蔺草。前景和后面的暗区被蔺草覆盖。
Fig. 45.—Landscape in Japan showing fields of rice and matting rush. The dark area in the foreground and others back are occupied by the rush.
这块厚四英寸、宽八英寸的长而重的木板的弯曲则更加简单。木板浸透水后，一端放在离地面四英尺高的支架上。一捆燃烧的稻草沿着木板的背面移动，压在湿木板上，使木板蒸干，木板的重量使它逐渐弯曲成所需的形状。竹竿通常以这种方式弯曲或拉直，以满足任何需要。图46展示了一把按照描述的方式制成的木叉，它取自一棵有三个主枝的小树。这把木叉现在在我翻译的手中，右边那位妇女就是用它翻麦子的。
The bending of the long, heavy plank, four inches thick and eight inches wide, was more simple still. It was saturated with water and one end raised on a support four feet above the ground. A bundle of burning rice straw moved along the under side against the wet wood had the effect of steaming the wood and the weight of the plank caused it to gradually bend into the shape desired. Bamboo poles are commonly bent or straightened in this manner to suit any need and Fig. 46 shows a wooden fork shaped in the manner described from a small tree having three main branches. This fork is in the hands of my interpreter and was used by the woman standing at the right, in turning wheat.
图 46、用树枝通过简单的蒸煮和干燥方法制成的木叉。
Fig. 46.—Wooden fork shaped from the limbs of a tree by simple means of steaming and drying.
老造船工人把木板弄好后，就坐在地上抽烟。他的烟斗是一根竹节，长约一英尺，直径约两英寸，一端开口。在竹节的一侧，封闭的一端钻了一个小孔，用于通风。将一小撮烟草放入底部，嘴唇压在开口处，用吸力点燃烟斗，并在小孔处点燃一根点燃的火柴。为了享受烟斗，他将烟斗放在两腿之间的地面上。嘴唇含在烟斗里，深吸一口气，让烟雾完全充满肺部，在肺部停留一段时间，然后慢慢呼出，在自然呼吸一段时间后，再次充满肺部。
When the old ship builder had finished shaping his plank he sat down on the ground for a smoke. His pipe was one joint of bamboo stem a foot long, nearly two inches in diameter and open at one end. In the closed end, at one side, a small hole was bored for draft. A charge of tobacco was placed in the bottom, the lips pressed into the open end and the pipe lighted by suction, holding a lighted match at the small opening. To enjoy his pipe the bowl rested on the ground between his legs. With his lips in the bowl and a long breath, he would completely fill his lungs, retaining the smoke for a time, then slowly expire and fill the lungs again, after an interval of natural breathing.
返回广州后，我们乘火车前往三水，在翻译的陪同下，沿途参观了田野。图47显示的是其中一处风景。一位妇女正在整齐的菜地中采摘玫瑰。在她身后，附近的建筑物前面，有两排垃圾桶。图片背景中央是一个很大的“货仓”，它既是我们的冷藏仓库，也有一部分用作大米的粮仓。富人也把他们的毛皮冬衣存放在货仓里以保管。在中国的这个地区，这样的货仓数量众多，城市的等级由它们的数量来衡量。附近的锥形小丘是一座巨大的坟丘，远处山上的许多其他坟丘则锯齿状地排列在天际线上。
On returning to Canton We went by rail, with an interpreter, to Samshui, visiting fields along the way, and Fig. 47 is a view of one landscape. The woman was picking roses among tidy beds of garden vegetables. Beyond her and in front of the near building are two rows of waste receptacles. In the center background is a large “go-down,” in function that of our cold storage warehouse and in part that of our grain elevator for rice. In them, too, the wealthy store their fur-lined winter garments for safe keeping. These are numerous in this portion of China and the rank of a city is indicated by their number. The conical hillock is a large near-by grave mound and many others serrate the sky line on the hill beyond.
在接下来的风景中，如图48所示，一茬冬豌豆被拉长成藤条，生长在田埂上，周围是第二茬稻子的茬地。前面是一条水渠，后面的双垄沟是另一条，第三条水渠延伸到房屋前面。第一茬稻子的准备工作已经做好，田地里正在浇水施肥。如图49所示，一个工人正在搬运厩肥，蹚进水里清空篮子里的肥料。
In the next landscape, Fig. 48, a crop of winter peas, trained to canes, are growing on ridges among the stubble of the second crop of rice. In front is one canal, the double ridge behind is another and a third canal extends in front of the houses. Already preparations were being made for the first crop of rice, fields were being flooded and fertilized. One such is seen in Fig. 49, where a laborer was engaged at the time in bringing stable manure, wading into the water to empty the baskets.
中国南方通常每年种植两季水稻。在冬季和早春，田地里可能会种植谷物、卷心菜、油菜、豌豆、豆角、韭菜和生姜，作为第三季甚至第四季作物。这使得全年的土地产量非常高；但为确保这些作物的产量，人们投入的心血、劳动和肥料更是巨大，远非美国人所能承受。从图50中可以看出，人们付出了多么巨大的努力。图50表示两块田地被犁成高高的垄，上面种着生姜，并覆盖着稻草。所有这些工作都是手工完成的，到了插秧的季节，每条垄都会被再次犁平，并将地面平整至水位。即使不犁垄和田畦是为了种植水稻，犁沟和田畦也会更换位置，以便所有土壤都经过深耕，而且主要依靠手工劳动。人们经常说，这些人只用最粗糙的工具在田地里耕作，这种说法与事实相去甚远，因为他们经常深耕土地，尽管他们的耕作可能很浅。
Two crops of rice are commonly grown each year in southern China and during the winter and early spring, grain, cabbage, rape, peas, beans, leeks and ginger may occupy the fields as a third or even fourth crop, making the total year’s product from the land very large; but the amount of thought, labor and fertilizers given to securing these is even greater and beyond anything Americans will endure. How great these efforts are will be appreciated from what is seen in Fig. 50, representing two fields thrown into high ridges, planted to ginger and covered with straw. All of this work is done by hand and when the time for rice planting comes every ridge will again be thrown down and the surface smoothed to a water level. Even when the ridges and beds are not thrown down for the crops of rice, the furrows and the beds will change places so that all the soil is worked over deeply and mainly through hand labor. The statement so often made, that these people only barely scratch the surface of their fields with the crudest of tools is very far from the truth, for their soils are worked deeply and often, notwithstanding the fact that their plowing, as such, may be shallow.
图 47.中国广州附近三水的风景。
Fig. 47.—Landscape at Samshui, near Canton, China.
图 48. 第二茬水稻之后冬季种植的豌豆；有三条平行的渠道。
Fig. 48.—Peas grown in winter after second crop of rice; with three parallel canals.
我们从广州以东桐昆教会医院的约翰·布鲁曼医生那里得知，几年前那里的良田每英亩售价75到130美元，但价格正在迅速上涨。那里较富裕的农民拥有10到15亩土地——一又三分之二到两英亩半——养活了6到12个家庭。木匠或泥瓦匠的日薪相当于我们货币的11到13美分，这还不包括食宿费，但一个劳动者的日配给价值15美分墨西哥金币，或不到7美分黄金。
Through Dr. John Blumann of the missionary hospital at Tungkun, east from Canton, we learned that the good rice lands there a few years ago sold at $75 to $130 per acre but that prices are rising rapidly. The holdings of the better class of farmers there are ten to fifteen mow,—one and two-thirds to two and a half acres—upon which are maintained families numbering six to twelve. The day’s wage of a carpenter or mason is eleven to thirteen cents of our currency, and board is not included, but a day’s ration for a laboring man is counted worth fifteen cents, Mexican, or less than seven cents, gold.
鱼类养殖在深浅两种水池中进行，深的永久性水池租金高达每英亩30金币。浅水池在旱季可以排水，仅在雨季用于养鱼，之后再排干并种植作物。永久性水池通常深度为10或12英尺，随着使用时间的延长而不断增加，因为它们会定期用泵抽水，并将积聚的一两英尺淤泥清除干净，然后作为肥料出售给水稻和其他作物的种植者。养鱼者通常会给池塘施肥，如果池塘边有人行道，则会在水面上建造屏障，为旅行者提供住宿。在施肥较好的池塘中饲养的鱼在市场上价格更高。水肥有利于鱼类赖以生存的植物和动物等食物的更旺盛地生长，使它们获得更好的营养，从而更快地生长，使其肉质更佳，就像饲养良好的动物一样。
Fish culture is practiced in both deep and shallow basins, the deep permanent ones renting as high as $30 gold, per acre. The shallow basins which can be drained in the dry season are used for fish only during the rainy period, being later drained and planted to some crop. The permanent basins have often come to be ten or twelve feet deep, increasing with long usage, for they are periodically drained by pumping and the foot or two of mud which has accumulated, removed and sold as fertilizer to planters of rice and other crops. It is a common practice, too, among the fish growers, to fertilize the ponds, and in case a foot path leads alongside, screens are built over the water to provide accommodation for travelers. Fish reared in the better fertilized ponds bring a higher price in the market. The fertilizing of the water favors a stronger growth of food forms, both plant and animal, upon which the fish live and they are better nourished, making a more rapid growth, giving their flesh better qualities, as is the case with well fed animals.
图 49、被水淹没的田地正在施肥，准备种植水稻；远处是冬豌豆和菜豆，背景是民居。
Fig. 49.—Flooded fields being fertilized preparatory for rice; winter peas and beans beyond, with dwellings in the background.
图 50。刚刚种植的姜田；有垄沟以便排水，显示了在种植了两年水稻之后，为确保冬季作物生长而进行的大量手工劳动。
Fig. 50.—Fields of ginger just planted; ridged and furrowed for drainage, showing the amount of hand labor performed to secure the winter crop, following two of rice.
在市场上出售的鱼通常被纵向切成两半，切面涂抹鲜血。在与布鲁曼博士讨论这种做法的原因时，他表示中国人非常反对食用变质或变质的肉，他认为这种处理方式只是为了让鱼看起来更新鲜。我怀疑这种用鲜血处理的方式是否真的具有杀菌作用，并且非常怀疑像中国人这样精明的人会被这种诡计误导。
In the markets where fish are exposed for sale they are often sliced in halves lengthwise and the cut surface smeared with fresh blood. In talking with Dr. Blumann as to the reason for this practice he stated that the Chinese very much object to eating meat that is old or tainted and that he thought the treatment simply had the effect of making the fish look fresher. I question whether this treatment with fresh, blood may not have a real antiseptic effect and very much doubt that people so shrewd as the Chinese would be misled by such a ruse.
V.
EXTENT OF CANALIZATION AND SURFACE FITTING OF FIELDS.
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3月15日晚，我们离开广州前往香港，第二天又登上“土佐丸”号前往上海。虽然我们的轮船停靠在离海很远的地方，除了一些近海岛屿外，基本上看不到陆地，但自从我们从汕头汉江河口越过北回归线后，大部分路程的海水都浑浊不堪。沿着海岸线向北延伸六百多英里，向外延伸约五十英里，覆盖着无数英亩英尺的中国最肥沃的土壤，它们正被冲刷到四亿人民及其后代无法触及的地方。毫无疑问，将大量此类沉积物转移到近岸，以便每年为公共领域增添宝贵的新土地，这必将是未来政治家、教育家和工程人才的一项重大任务。这不仅在中国，而且在所有大量此类资源即将被浪费的国家都是如此。
On the evening of March 15th we left Canton for Hongkong and the following day embarked again on the Tosa Maru for Shanghai. Although our steamer stood so far to sea that we were generally out of sight of land except for some off-shore islands, the water was turbid most of the way after we had crossed the Tropic of Cancer off the mouth of the Han river at Swatow. Over a sea bottom measuring more than six hundred miles northward along the coast, and perhaps fifty miles to sea, unnumbered acre-feet of the richest soil of China are being borne beyond the reach of her four hundred millions of people and the children to follow them. Surely it must be one of the great tasks of future statesmanship, education and engineering skill to divert larger amounts of such sediments close along inshore in such manner as to add valuable new land annually to the public domain, not alone in China but in all countries where large resources of this type are going to waste.
在我们刚刚离开的广袤的粤东三角洲平原，在我们即将前往的更为广阔的长江平原，以及更北边的黄河平原，几百年来，数百万辛勤劳作的人们完成了几乎无法估量的工程，其基本内容与上述内容基本一致。他们凭借着强大的体力和意志力完成了其中的很大一部分工作，修筑堤坝，开凿运河，将浑浊的河水引流，然后将淤泥和有机物运到田地里，这些工作通常由人力承担，就像我们所看到的那样。
In the vast Cantonese delta plains which we had just left, in the still more extensive ones of the Yangtse kiang to which we were now going, and in those of the shifting Hwang ho further north, centuries of toiling millions have executed works of almost incalculable magnitude, fundamentally along such lines as those just suggested. They have accomplished an enormous share of these tasks by sheer force of body and will, building levees, digging canals, diverting the turbid waters of streams through them and then carrying the deposits of silt and organic growth out upon the fields, often borne upon the shoulders of men in the manner we have seen.
图 51 浙江省 718 平方英里范围内主要运河地图。每条线代表一条运河。
Fig. 51.—Map of main canals in 718 square miles of Chekiang Province. Each line represents a canal.
文字或地图几乎无法充分展现中国、朝鲜和日本几个世纪以来，以及至今仍在进行的运河系统、三角洲及其他低地开垦工程的规模，以及其对田地进行表面整治的程度。这些开垦和整治的土地构成了它们最持久的资产，并养育着最稠密的人口。在我们乘坐船屋游览中国上海和杭州之间117英里长的三角洲运河的一次旅程中，我们仔细记录了进出我们船队所沿主运河的支渠的数量和大小。记录显示，在嘉兴以北向南延伸至杭州的62英里内，有134条运河从西侧流入，190条运河从海岸流出。我们估计，这些运河沿水线测量的平均宽度，两侧分别为22英尺和19英尺。四五月水位上涨期间，田地高出水面四到十二英尺。进入大运河后，水深常常超过六英尺，我们根据最佳判断，认为中国这一地区所有运河的平均水深都在田地水面以下八英尺以上。
It is well nigh impossible, by word or map, to convey an adequate idea of the magnitude of the systems of canalization and delta and other lowland reclamation work, or of the extent of surface fitting of fields which have been effected in China, Korea and Japan through the many centuries, and which are still in progress. The lands so reclaimed and fitted constitute their most enduring asset and they support their densest populations. In one of our journeys by houseboat on the delta canals between Shanghai and Hangchow, in China, over a distance of 117 miles, we made a careful record of the number and dimensions of lateral canals entering and leaving the main one along which our boat-train was traveling. This record shows that in 62 miles, beginning north of Kashing and extending south to Hangchow, there entered from the west 134 and there left on the coast side 190 canals. The average width of these canals, measured along the water line, we estimated at 22 and 19 feet respectively on the two sides. The hight of the fields above the water level ranged from four to twelve feet, during the April and May stage of water. The depth of water, after we entered the Grand Canal, often exceeded six feet and our best judgment would place the average depth of all canals in this part of China at more than eight feet below the level of the fields.
图51表示穿越区域面积为718平方英里，所有线条均为运河，但地图上显示的运河仅略多于三分之一。从我们开始记录的A点（到达嘉兴之前）到地图左侧边缘附近的B点，共有43条运河从内陆流入，而不是图中所示的8条；在沿海地区，有86条运河流向三角洲平原，而不是图中所示的12条。此外，在我们从上海到南京的一次火车旅行中，我们也对从火车上沿轨道看到的运河数量做了类似的记录，记录显示，在龙潭和南翔之间162英里的距离内，共有593条运河。这意味着该地区以及上海和杭州之间的平均每英里运河数量超过3条。
In Fig. 51, representing an area of 718 square miles in the region traversed, all lines shown are canals, but scarcely more than one-third of those present are shown on the map. Between A, where we began our records, before reaching Kashing, and B, near the left margin of the map, there were forty-three canals leading in from the up-country side, instead of the eight shown, and on the coast side there were eighty-six leading water out into the delta plain toward the coast, instead of the twelve shown. Again, on one of our trips by rail, from Shanghai to Nanking, we made a similar record of the number of canals seen from the train, close along the track, and the notes show, in a distance of 162 miles, 593 canals between Lungtan and Nansiang. This is an average of more than three canals per mile for this region and that between Shanghai and Hangchow.
图52——浙江省和江苏省部分地区的示意图，标示了约2700英里的主要运河和超过300英里的海堤。海堤用粗黑线表示。小矩形表示图51所覆盖的区域。
Fig. 52.—Sketch map of portions of Chekiang and Kiangsu Provinces, representing some 2,700 miles of main canals and over 300 miles of sea-wall. The sea-walls are represented by the very heavy black lines. The small rectangle shows the area covered by Fig. 51.
通过研究接下来的两幅示意图，或许可以更好地理解这些庞大的内部改进系统的范围、性质和目的。第一幅图（图52）描绘了一块175英里乘160英里的区域，其中最后一幅图是小矩形框内的部分。该区域内有2700英里长的运河，而图51中所示的运河只有约三分之一在这张地图上有所体现。根据我们的个人观察，实际运河数量是图51所示地图（部分）上的三倍。因此，很可能：如今，图 52所示的区域内存在着不少于 25,000 英里的运河。
The extent, nature and purpose of these vast systems of internal improvement may be better realized through a study of the next two sketch maps. The first, Fig. 52, represents an area 175 by 160 miles, of which the last illustration is the portion enclosed in the small rectangle. On this area there are shown 2,700 miles of canals and only about one-third of the canals shown in Fig. 51 are laid down on this map, and according to our personal observations there are three times as many canals as are shown on the map of which Fig. 51 represents a part. It is probable, therefore, that there exists today in the area of Fig. 52 not less than 25,000 miles of canals.
下图（图53）描绘的是中国东北地区一块600英里乘725英里的区域。未着色的陆地覆盖了近20万平方英里的冲积平原。这片平原如此平坦，以至于在长江上游近1000英里的宜昌，海拔仅130英尺。在距海岸375英里的芜湖以外的地方都能感受到潮汐。夏季，长江的水深足以让远洋船只吃水25英尺，上升600英里到达汉口，而小型轮船则可以继续航行到400英里外的宜昌。
In the next illustration, Fig. 53, an area of northeast China, 600 by 725 miles, is represented. The unshaded land area covers nearly 200,000 square miles of alluvial plain. This plain is so level that at Ichang, nearly a thousand miles up the Yangtse, the elevation is only 130 feet above the sea. The tide is felt on the river to beyond Wuhu, 375 miles from the coast. During the summer the depth of water in the Yangtse is sufficient to permit ocean vessels drawing twenty-five feet of water to ascend six hundred miles to Hankow, and for smaller steamers to go on to Ichang, four hundred miles further.
上文描述过的运河系统，就位于这片广阔的低洼三角洲和沿海平原上，其位置已由草图（图53）东南角的两个矩形标出。从南部的杭州延伸到北部的天津的粗黑线代表京杭大运河，全长超过八百英里。运河以东的平原，向北延伸至1852年的黄河河口，其运河化程度与图52所示的区域大致相同。在山东和直隶，黄河河口两侧，运河与海岸之间的大片区域也同样如此。向西，沿着长江流域，安徽、江西、湖南和湖北四省拥有非常广阔的运河区，面积可能超过28,000平方英里。图54和图55是这片更西部地区的两幅图。再往西，在四川省，是面积为三十乘七十英里的成都平原，那里有被称为“中国最杰出的灌溉系统”的土地。
The location, in this vast low delta and coastal plain, of the system of canals already described, is indicated by the two rectangles in the south-east corner of the sketch map, Fig. 53. The heavy barred black line extending from Hangchow in the south to Tientsin in the north represents the Grand Canal which has a length of more than eight hundred miles. The plain, east of this canal, as far north as the mouth of the Hwang ho in 1852, is canalized much as is the area shown in Fig. 52. So, too, is a large area both sides of the present mouth of the same river in Shantung and Chihli, between the canal and the coast. Westward, up the Yangtse valley, the provinces of Anhwei, Kiangsi, Hunan and Hupeh have very extensive canalized tracts, probably exceeding 28,000 square miles in area, and Figs. 54 and 55 are two views in this more western region. Still further west, in Szechwan province, is the Chengtu plain, thirty by seventy miles, with what has been called “the most remarkable irrigation system in China.”
向西，越过草图边界，沿黄河谷而上，在宁海府附近有一片125英里的灌溉区，再往西，在兰州府和苏州，河水已达到5000英尺，位于甘肃省；还有一片尚未命名的广州三角洲地区。保守估计，绵延数英里的运河和筑堤的河流中国、韩国和日本的运河总长度相当于图52所示数字的八倍，总计足足20万英里。纵贯美国东西的40条运河和纵贯南北的60条运河，其总长度远不及如今这三个国家的运河总长度。事实上，仅就中国而言，这个估计可能并不算太大。
Westward beyond the limits of the sketch map, up the Hwang ho valley, there is a reach of 125 miles of irrigated lands about Ninghaifu, and others still farther west, at Lanchowfu and at Suchow where the river has attained an elevation of 5,000 feet, in Kansu province; and there is still to be named the great Canton delta region. A conservative estimate would place the miles of canals and leveed rivers in China, Korea and Japan equal to eight times the number represented in Fig. 52. Fully 200,000 miles in all. Forty canals across the United States from east to west and sixty from north to south would not equal, in number of miles those in these three countries today. Indeed, it is probable that this estimate is not too large for China alone.
图53——中国东北地区示意图，显示了冲积平原和京杭大运河。京杭大运河从杭州延伸至天津，全长800英里。未阴影部分的陆地大部分海拔不到100英尺。
Fig. 53.—Sketch map of northeast China showing the alluvial plain and the Grand Canal, extending 800 miles through it from Hangchow to Tientsin. The unshaded land area lies mostly less than 100 feet above sea level.
作为这些大型渠化工程的附属物，有大量的堤坝、堤坝和堤坝建设。图52所示示意图所覆盖的区域，仅海堤就长达300多英里。大运河东岸，位于扬州和怀安府之间，本身就是一座大堤，将西边的河水拦在东部平原之上，然后将其南下汇入长江。但它也设有泄洪道，以便在洪水泛滥时使用，使河水向东泄洪。然而，这些多余的水量被另一座堤坝控制，该堤坝西侧有一条运河，位于东侧约40英里处，将河水拦蓄在一系列大型湖泊中，直到逐渐排干。图53所示区域位于长江以北。
As adjuncts to these vast canalization works there have been enormous amounts of embankment, dike and levee construction. More than three hundred miles of sea wall alone exist in the area covered by the sketch map, Fig. 52. The east bank of the Grand Canal, between Yang-chow and Hwaianfu, is itself a great levee, holding back the waters to the west above the eastern plain, diverting them south, into the Yangtse kiang. But it is also provided with spillways for use in times of excessive flood, permitting waters to discharge eastward. Such excess waters however are controlled by another dike with canal along its west side, some forty miles to the east, impounding the water in a series of large lakes until it may gradually drain away. This area is seen in Fig. 53, north of the Yangtse river.
版权所有，Underwood & Underwood, NY
Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.
图 54.中国江西省最近移植的稻田山谷景色。
Fig. 54.—View across valley of rice fields, recently transplanted, in Kiangsi province, China.
长江沿岸以及黄河沿岸绵延数英里的河段，都修建了巨大的堤坝，有时两三道堤坝会以不同的距离加固，这些堤坝位于河床高于邻近地区的位置，以防止大范围的灾害，并在异常洪水发生时限制被淹没的面积。在湖北省，汉江流经两百英里的低洼地区，这条河流的两岸全程都筑有堤坝，部分河段的堤坝高度甚至达到三十英尺以上。此外，在广州三角洲地区，还有数百英里的海堤和堤坝，因此，帝国境内此类建筑工程的总里程数以千英里计。
Along the banks of the Yangtse, and for many miles along the Hwang ho, great levees have been built, sometimes in reenforcing series of two or three at different distances back from the channel where the stream bed is above the adjacent country, in order to prevent widespread disaster and to limit the inundated areas in times of unusual flood. In the province of Hupeh, where the Han river flows through two hundred miles of low country, this stream is diked on both sides throughout the whole distance, and in a portion of its course the hight of the levees reaches thirty feet or more. Again, in the Canton delta region there are other hundreds of miles of sea wall and dikes, so that the aggregate mileage of this type of construction works in the Empire can only be measured in thousands of miles.
除了运河和堤坝建设外，还有许多蓄水水库被征用，用于控制大河的溢流。其中一些水库，例如湖北的洞庭湖和湖南的鄱阳湖，面积分别为2000平方英里和1800平方英里，在雨季，每个水库的水位都可能上涨20到30英尺。此外，沿海平原上还有其他大大小小的湖泊，总水库面积超过13000平方英里，所有这些湖泊都用于控制洪水，它们都被从遥远的荒芜山坡上带来的沉积物稳定地填满，最终注定会变成肥沃的冲积平原，毫无疑问，它们也会像我们之前看到的那样被运河化。
In addition to the canal and levee construction works there are numerous impounding reservoirs which are brought into requisition to control overflow waters from the great streams. Some of these reservoirs, like Tungting lake in Hupeh and Poyang in Hunan, have areas of 2,000 and 1,800 square miles respectively and during the heaviest rainy seasons each may rise through twenty to thirty feet, Then there are other large and small lakes in the coastal plain giving an aggregate reservoir area exceeding 13,000 square miles, all of which are brought into service in controlling flood waters, all of which are steadily filling with the sediments brought from the far away uncultivable mountain slopes and which are ultimately destined to become rich alluvial plains, doubtless to be canalized in the manner we have seen.
版权所有，Underwood & Underwood, NY
Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.
图 55：湖南省，抬头望去，可以看到被水淹没的梯田山谷。
Fig. 55.—Looking up the valley across terraced rice fields flooded with water, in Hunan province.
这些庞大的建设工程中，还有另一个阶段对提升帝国的维护能力至关重要——从洪水中汲取大量淤泥，将其沉积在被淹没的地区、运河和海岸沿线，从而增加了可居住和可耕种的土地。上文提到了长江口忠明岛的快速发展，数百万人现在在270平方英里的新土地上安居乐业，这些土地上现在有运河，如图52的上边缘所示。上海，顾名思义，最初位于海滨，如今已向北和向东扩展了20英里。公元前220年，山东的蒲台镇距离大海三分之一英里，但在1730年，它距离内陆47英里，而今天距离海岸48英里。
There is still another phase of these vast construction works which has been of the greatest moment in increasing the maintenance capacity of the Empire,—the wresting from the flood waters of the enormous volumes of silt which they carry, depositing it over the flooded areas, in the canals and along the shores in such manner as to add to the habitable and cultivable land. Reference has been made to the rapid growth of Chungming island in the mouth of the Yangtse kiang, and the million people now finding homes on the 270 square miles of newly made land which now has its canals, as may be seen in the upper margin of Fig. 52. The city of Shanghai, as its name signifies, stood originally on the seashore, which has now grown twenty miles to the northward and to the eastward. In 220 B. C. the town of Putai in Shantung stood one-third of a mile from the sea, but in 1730 it was forty-seven miles inland, and is forty-eight miles from the shore today.
公元500年，白河上的仙水库矗立在海边。我们途经这座城市，前往内陆十八英里的天津。图53中从直隶湾海岸延伸的虚线标志着一条历史悠久的海岸线，并表明了向海十八英里处陆地的总体生长。
Sienshuiku, on the Pei ho, stood upon the seashore in 500 A. D. We passed the city, on our way to Tientsin, eighteen miles inland. The dotted line laid in from the coast of the Gulf of Chihli in Fig. 53 marks one historic shore line and indicates a general growth of land eighteen miles to seaward.
除了海岸线的实际延伸之外，几个世纪以来，湖泊和低洼地的洪水淹没了许多洼地，将大片沼泽变成了耕地。不仅如此，将运河淤泥撒播到被包围的田地上，还产生了两个非常重要的影响：一是抬高了低洼田地的地势，使其排水更好，从而改善了土地的物理条件；二是以最肥沃的原始土壤的形式为植物提供了新的养分，从而有助于土壤肥力的维持、高维持能力以及百年不衰的农业。
Besides these actual extensions of the shore lines the centuries of flooding of lakes and low lying lands has so filled many depressions as to convert large areas of swamp into cultivated fields. Not only this, but the spreading of canal mud broadcast over the encircled fields has had two very important effects,—namely, raising the level of the low lying fields, giving them better drainage and so better physical condition, and adding new plant food in the form of virgin soil of the richest type, thus contributing to the maintenance of soil fertility, high maintenance capacity and permanent agriculture through all the centuries.
这些维护和改善工程始于很早以前；它们似乎贯穿了整个帝国的有记载的历史，至今仍盛行。图51和图52所示类型的运河建于1886年至1901年间，既在忠明岛的延伸部分，也在北部新形成的大陆上，这一点可以通过1886年修订的施蒂勒地图集与最近的德国测绘结果进行比较来证明。
These operations of maintenance and improvement had a very early inception; they appear to have persisted throughout the recorded history of the Empire and are in vogue today. Canals of the type illustrated in Figs. 51 and 52 have been built between 1886 and 1901, both on the extensions of Chungming island and the newly formed main land to the north, as is shown by comparison of Stieler’s atlas, revised in 1886, with the recent German survey.
早在公元前2255年，也就是4100多年前，尧帝就任命大禹为“工部尚书”，委托他治理洪水泛滥，开凿河渠。禹为此耗费了十三年时间。据说这位伟大的工程师撰写了数部关于农业和排水的著作，最终在人生的最后七年，他被召为皇帝，这在他看来是违背了他自己的意愿。
Earlier than 2255 B. C., more than 4100 years ago, Emperor Yao appointed “The Great” Yu “Superintendent of Works” and entrusted him with the work of draining off the waters of disastrous floods and of canalizing the rivers, and he devoted thirteen years to this work. This great engineer is said to have written several treatises on agriculture and drainage, and was finally called, much against his wishes, to serve as Emperor during the last seven years of his life.
黄河的历史充满了灾难性的洪水和改道，自大禹时代以来，这种情况已经发生过很多次，而大禹可能就是这些流传至今的工程的开山祖师。公元 1300 年至 1852 年间，黄河在山东高原南部注入黄海，但那一年，一场异常洪水冲垮了北堤，最终改道，再次流入直隶湾，直隶湾在更北的地方，大约在三百英里之外。图53 的示意图中用虚线标出了黄河和长江的一些改道。从图中可以看出，在 146 年间，黄河水位最北流入天津，通过北河入海口，在 1852 年，北河位于其入海口以北四百英里处。
The history of the Hwang ho is one of disastrous floods and shiftings of its course, which have occurred many times in the years since before the time of the Great Yu, who perhaps began the works perpetuated today. Between 1300 A. D. and 1852 the Hwang ho emptied into the Yellow Sea south of the highlands of Shantung, but in that year, when in unusual flood, it broke through the north levees and finally took its present course, emptying again into the Gulf of Chihli, some three hundred miles further north. Some of these shiftings of course of the Hwang ho and of the Yangtse kiang are indicated in dotted lines on the sketch map, Fig. 53, where it may be seen that the Hwang ho during 146 years, poured its waters into the sea as far north as Tientsin, through the mouth of the Pei ho, four hundred miles to the northward of its mouth in 1852.
据说，这条浩瀚的河流在低水位时，流经山东济南市，每秒的流量不低于4000立方码，洪水泛滥时更是翻了三倍。这些水足以在24小时内淹没33平方英里的平原，水深达10英尺。一个人的精神状态又该如何呢？四千年来，人们一直在与这样一条泰坦巨兽较量，这条巨兽从他们田地上方飞驰而过，他们的家园被困在自己建造的城墙之间。虽然他们并非总能成功控制这条河，但他们从未失败过。1877年，这条河决堤，淹没了大片地区，造成一百万人死亡。同样，直到1898年，济南东北部1500个村庄和同城西南部的更大面积地区也遭到了破坏。正是这些事件为这条河赢得了“中国的悲哀”、“难以治理的”和“汉人之灾”的称号。
This mighty river is said to carry at low stage, past the city of Tsinan in Shantung, no less than 4,000 cubic yards of water per second, and three times this volume when running at flood. This is water sufficient to inundate thirty-three square miles of level country ten feet deep in twenty-four hours. What must be said of the mental status of a people who for forty centuries have measured their strength against such a Titan racing past their homes above the level of their fields, confined only between walls of their own construction? While they have not always succeeded in controlling the river, they have never failed to try again. In 1877 this river broke its banks, inundating a vast area, bringing death to a million people. Again, as late as 1898, fifteen hundred villages to the northeast of Tsinan and a much larger area to the southwest of the same city were devastated by it, and it is such events as these which have won for the river the names “China’s Sorrow,” “The Ungovernable” and “The Scourge of the Sons of Han.”
大运河的开凿似乎是中国历史上相对较晚的事件。中段，即长江与清江浦之间的河段，据说建于公元前六世纪左右；南段，即镇江与杭州之间的河段，建于公元605年至617年；而北段，即从1852年废弃的黄河水道到天津的河段，直到1280年至1283年才开凿。
The building of the Grand Canal appears to have been a comparatively recent event in Chinese history. The middle section, between the Yangtse and Tsingkiangpu, is said to have been constructed about the sixth century B. C.; the southern section, between Chingkiang and Hangchow, during the years 605 to 617 A. D.; but the northern section, from the channel of the Hwang ho deserted in 1852, to Tientsin, was not built until the years 1280–1283.
虽然这条运河被中国人称为“御河”、“运河”或“运粮河”，虽然它将来自内陆腹地的各条大河连接起来，形成了一个庞大的水运系统，但这一修建目的或许只是其主要目的的副产品，而正是这一目的导致了运河、堤坝、防洪堤和蓄水库等大规模的内部改善，这些设施分布广泛，开发完善，利用高效。更确切地说，其主要目的必然是为了应对日益增长的洪水泛滥。我愿意赋予大禹权力，让他把握国家脉搏，将他的远见卓识投射到他的民族未来四千年，并制定一些可能与时俱进的措施，确保后世子孙后代能够永久受益。
While this canal has been called by the Chinese Yu ho (Imperial river), Yun ho (Transport river) or Yunliang ho (Tribute bearing river) and while it has connected the great rivers coming down from the far interior into a great water-transport system, this feature of construction may have been but a by-product of the great dominating purpose which led to the vast internal improvements in the form of canals, dikes, levees and impounding reservoirs so widely scattered, so fully developed and so effectively utilized. Rather the master purpose must have been maintenance for the increasing flood of humanity. And I am willing to grant to the Great Yu, with his finger on the pulse of the nation, the power to project his vision four thousand years into the future of his race and to formulate some of the measures which might be inaugurated to grow with the years and make certain perpetual maintenance for those to follow.
耕地枯竭一直是所有文明人最根本、最关键、最困难的问题，而且很明显，图 51和52所示的这种渠化可能主要是三角洲和溢流土地开垦的初始步骤。不管怎样，无论是否经过精心策划，中国三角洲和泛滥平原的运河开凿都是保护国家资源最根本、最有效的措施之一。我们确信，这个世界上最古老的民族通过修建运河，大大扩张了其沿海平原，在大河侵蚀的土地上保护和建设了数百平方英里最肥沃、最持久的土壤。我们毫不怀疑，如果能够全面准确地描述过去四千年来人类对这一非凡地区变化的影响，就会发现这些庞大的运河系统是缓慢渐进发展起来的，往往是由那些坚强、耐心、执着、深思熟虑但始终保持沉默的农民为获得住房和维持田地生产力而付出的劳动所发起的，并且始终受到他们深刻的影响。
The exhaustion of cultivated fields must always have been the most fundamental, vital and difficult problem of all civilized people and it appears clear that such canalization as is illustrated in Figs. 51 and 52 may have been primarily initial steps in the reclamation of delta and overflow lands. At any rate, whether deliberately so planned or not, the canalization of the delta and overflow plains of China has been one of the most fundamental and fruitful measures for the conservation of her national resources that they could have taken, for we are convinced that this oldest nation in the world has thus greatly augmented the extension of its coastal plains, conserving and building out of the waste of erosion wrested from the great streams, hundreds of square miles of the richest and most enduring of soils, and we have little doubt that were a full and accurate account given of human influence upon the changes in this remarkable region during the last four thousand years it would show that these gigantic systems of canalization have been matters of slow, gradual growth, often initiated and always profoundly influenced by the labors of the strong, patient, persevering, thoughtful but ever silent husbandmen in their efforts to acquire homes and to maintain the productive power of their fields.
显而易见的是，当今中国最需要思考的重大物质问题，就是完善、扩展和延续控制洪水、更好地排水大片低洼地带以及更有效地利用河流携带的大量泥沙来肥沃现有田地、开垦和复垦新土地的手段。数百万人民亟需住房，渴望工作；他们在土地建设、开垦和土壤肥力维护方面做出了巨大贡献，政府应该认真考虑能否让大量人民在最优秀的工程技术的有效指导下投入工作。现在，凭借工程技术和机械设备，将黄河和其他河流纳入到新的灌溉系统，这必定是完全可行的。中国河流泛滥，完全受到控制。黄河水流受限于其河道，邻近的低地可以通过修建渠化更好地排水，摆脱不断积聚的盐碱沉积物，这些盐碱沉积物使低地变得贫瘠。洪水季节可以进行淤泥处理，以提高邻近低洼田地的水位，同时使其更加肥沃。如果河水流经邻近平原，则可以轻松地在受控条件下利用重力将浑浊的水引入筑坝盆地，甚至迫使河流支撑自身的堤坝。中国无疑迫切需要并有机会进一步完善和提高其本已完善的交通运河以及用于排水、灌溉和施肥的运河的效率。
Nothing appears more clear than that the greatest material problem which can engage the best thought of China today is that of perfecting, extending and perpetuating the means for controlling her flood waters, for better draining of her vast areas of low land, and for utilizing the tremendous loads of silt borne by her streams more effectively in fertilizing existing fields and in building and reclaiming new land. With her millions of people needing homes and anxious for work; who have done so much in land building, in reclamation and in the maintenance of soil fertility, the government should give serious thought to the possibility of putting large numbers of them at work, effectively directed by the best engineering skill. It must now be entirely practicable, with engineering skill and mechanical appliances, to put the Hwang ho, and other rivers of China subject to overflow, completely under control. With the Hwang ho confined to its channel, the adjacent low lands can be better drained by canalization and freed from the accumulating saline deposits which are rendering them sterile. Warping may be resorted to during the flood season to raise the level of adjacent low-lying fields, rendering them at the same time more fertile. Where the river is running above the adjacent plains there is no difficulty in drawing off the turbid water by gravity, under controlled conditions, into diked basins, and even in compelling the river to buttress its own levees. There is certainly great need and great opportunity for China to make still better and more efficient her already wonderful transportation canals and those devoted to drainage, irrigation and fertilization.
同样，在美国，既然我们正在考虑开发内陆水道，就应该对此进行广泛的调查，并仔细研究这些先民在过去几个世纪中建造并发现其实用价值的工程。密西西比河每年将近225,000英亩英尺的肥沃沉积物输送到大海，并通过堤坝之间沿着高架河床流经两百英里易受洪水侵袭的地区。现在是时候系统地将这些肥沃土壤的大部分转移到沼泽地区，将其建设成排水良好、可耕种的肥沃田地，并配备水道用于排水、灌溉、施肥和运输。这样，这些大片沼泽地就可以变成世界上最高产的稻米和甘蔗种植园，并使这些地区能够在密西西比河承载其肥沃沉积物的前提下，养活数百万人口。
In the United States, along the same lines, now that we are considering the development of inland waterways, the subject should be surveyed broadly and much careful study may well be given to the works these old people have developed and found serviceable through so many centuries. The Mississippi is annually bearing to the sea nearly 225,000 acre-feet of the most fertile sediment, and between levees along a raised bed through two hundred miles of country subject to inundation. The time is here when there should be undertaken a systematic diversion of a large part of this fertile soil over the swamp areas, building them into well drained, cultivable, fertile fields provided with waterways to serve for drainage, irrigation, fertilization and transportation. These great areas of swamp land may thus be converted into the most productive rice and sugar plantations to be found anywhere in the world, and the area made capable of maintaining many millions of people as long as the Mississippi endures, bearing its burden of fertile sediment.
尽管中国三角洲平原对土壤侵蚀废弃物的保护和利用取得了巨大的成就，但与广泛实施的精心和广泛的田地整治所节省的资金相比，其规模仍然很小。这些整治不仅减少了土壤侵蚀，还使径流中大量的可溶物和悬浮物能够通过广泛的灌溉系统被施用到田地中并保留在田地中。日本国土多山丘陵，但其在本州、九州和四国等主要岛屿上的11000平方英里的耕地已被仔细地平整到以狭窄凸起边缘为界的水位区域，这些边缘可以施用16英寸或更高的径流水及其悬浮物和可溶物，其中很大一部分被保留在田地中或被作物利用，同时几乎完全防止了地表侵蚀。插图，见图。图 11、12和13显示了该原理在更大、更平坦的田地中的应用，而图 151、152 和 225 则显示了在陡坡上的实践。
But the conservation and utilization of the wastes of soil erosion, as applied in the delta plain of China, stupendous as this work has been, is nevertheless small when measured by the savings which accrue from the careful and extensive fitting of fields so largely practiced, which, both lessens soil erosion and permits a large amount of soluble and suspended matter in the run-off to be applied to, and retained upon, the fields through their extensive systems of irrigation. Mountainous and hilly as are the lands of Japan, 11,000 square miles of her cultivated fields in the main islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku have been carefully graded to water level areas bounded by narrow raised rims upon which sixteen or more inches of run-off water, with its suspended and soluble matters, may be applied, a large part of which is retained on the fields or utilized by the crop, while surface erosion is almost completely prevented. The illustrations, Figs. 11, 12 and 13 show the application of the principle to the larger and more level fields, and in Figs. 151, 152 and 225 may be seen the practice on steep slopes.
图 56——中国浙江省为更好地保存雨水和肥力以及更有效地灌溉和排水而分级的田地。
Fig. 56.—Fields graded for the better conservation of rainfall and fertility and for more efficient irrigation and drainage, Chekiang province, China.
如果日本几乎平整到水位的田地总面积达到11000平方英里，那么中国如此平整的田地总面积肯定是这个数字的八到十倍。目前在我们南部和南大西洋沿岸国家所能容忍的如此严重的田地侵蚀，据我们观察，在远东地区是绝对不允许的，即使在地势更陡峭的地方也是如此。我们看到的茶园位于陡峭的山坡上，并非平坦的梯田，通常覆盖着厚厚的稻草，这使得即使暴雨也不会造成侵蚀。这种处理方式可以将雨水滞留在原地，使土壤有机会在毛细作用和重力的作用下吸收雨水，以及从稻草中浸出的可溶性灰分成分。我们看到的这种稻草覆盖物通常厚度为6到8英寸，因此每英亩的覆盖量不少于6吨，其中含有140磅可溶性钾和12磅磷。因此，这种做法既能有效施肥，又能最大程度地保护和利用雨水，并彻底防止土壤侵蚀。这种“多管齐下”的治疗方法，正是这些民族众多实践的特色，这些实践是二十个世纪高压经验的结晶。
If the total area of fields graded practically to a water level in Japan aggregates 11,000 square miles, the total area thus surface fitted in China must be eight or tenfold this amount. Such enormous field erosion as is tolerated at the present time in our southern and south Atlantic states is permitted nowhere in the Far East, so far as we observed, not even where the topography is much steeper. The tea orchards as we saw them on the steeper slopes, not level-terraced, are often heavily mulched with straw which makes erosion, even by heavy rains, impossible, while the treatment retains the rain where it falls, giving the soil opportunity to receive it under the impulse of both capillarity and gravity, and with it the soluble ash ingredients leached from the straw. The straw mulches we saw used in this manner were often six to eight inches deep, thus constituting a dressing of not less than six tons per acre, carrying 140 pounds of soluble potassium and 12 pounds of phosphorus. The practice, therefore, gives at once a good fertilizing, the highest conservation and utilization of rainfall, and a complete protection against soil erosion. It is a multum in parvo treatment which characterizes so many of the practices of these people, which have crystalized from twenty centuries of high tension experience.
在江苏和浙江省，以及远东其他人口稠密的地区，我们发现几乎所有的耕地都非常平坦，或者通过平整而变得平坦。图56和图57中展示了在相对平坦的地区进行这种平整的例子。通过这种对田地的初步整地，这些人将土壤肥力因侵蚀和地表淋溶而损失降到了最低限度。同时，他们能够将尽可能多、均匀分布的降雨量保留在田地上，并通过地下排水系统排出比其他方式多得多的必要径流，将表层土壤中发育的植物养分输送到作物根部，同时使土壤能够更充分地吸收和保留未被吸收的可溶性植物养分。当补充灌溉有帮助时，同样的处理方法也为向田地供水提供了最佳条件，如果需要，还可以通过地表排水排除多余的雨水。
In the Kiangsu and Chekiang provinces, as elsewhere in the densely populated portions of the Far East, we found almost all of the cultivated fields very nearly level or made so by grading. Instances showing the type of this grading in a comparatively level country are seen in Figs. 56 and 57. By this preliminary surface fitting of the fields these people have reduced to the lowest possible limit the waste of soil fertility by erosion and surface leaching. At the same time they are able to retain upon the field, uniformly distributed over it, the largest part of the rainfall practicable, and to compel a much larger proportion of the necessary run off to leave by under-drainage than would be possible otherwise, conveying the plant food developed in the surface soil to the roots of the crops, while they make possible a more complete absorption and retention by the soil of the soluble plant food materials not taken up. This same treatment also furnishes the best possible conditions for the application of water to the fields when supplemental irrigation would be helpful, and for the withdrawal of surplus rainfall by surface drainage, should this be necessary.
除了这种田地的地面整治之外，还有许多其他方法被广泛应用，旨在保护降雨和土壤肥力。图58展示了其中一种方法，图中显示的是一个集水库的一端。有三个这样的水库串联在一起，通过地面沟渠和一条相邻的运河相互连接。在水库周围，可以看到平坦的田地被分成几片，田垄之间有浅沟。这些沟渠通过水库边缘的排水沟连接起来，并通过一个狭窄的凸起边缘与水库隔开。这样的水库深度可达6到10英尺，但只有在旱季才能通过抽水或蒸发完全排干。多余的地表水被排入这样的水库，从田地中携带的所有悬浮物都会聚集并返回，直接作为泥浆施用或作为堆肥的材料。在准备堆肥时，如图所示，在水库边缘附近挖坑，将粗粪肥和任何残茬或其他可用的废物形式的粗饲料扔进坑里，这些材料被从水库底部浸入的软泥浸透。
Besides this surface fitting of fields there is a wide application of additional methods aiming to conserve both rainfall and soil fertility, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 58, showing one end of a collecting reservoir. There were three of these reservoirs in tandem, connected with each other by surface ditches and with an adjoining canal. About the reservoir the level field is seen to be thrown into beds with shallow furrows between the long narrow ridges. The furrows are connected by a head drain around the margin of the reservoir and separated from it by a narrow raised rim. Such a reservoir may be six to ten feet deep but can be completely drained only by pumping or by evaporation during the dry season. Into such reservoirs the excess surface water is drained where all suspended matter carried from the field collects and is returned, either directly as an application of mud or as material used in composts. In the preparation of composts, pits are dug near the margin of the reservoir, as seen in the illustration, and into them are thrown coarse manure and any roughage in the form of stubble or other refuse which may be available, these materials being saturated with the soft mud dipped from the bottom of the reservoir.
图 57——与图 56 相同的做法。两种情况下的作物都是在低洼地区种植温莎豆和油菜，在高地种植桑树。随后在低洼地区种植水稻。
Fig. 57.—Illustrating the same practice as Fig. 56. The crops in both instances are Windsor beans and rape on the low-lying areas, and mulberries on the higher ground. Rice will follow on the lower areas.
图 58——用于保存雨水和肥力的蓄水池，也用作鱼塘，并提供用于制作堆肥的水和泥浆。前景中的圆环是一个堆肥坑。
Fig. 58.—Collecting reservoir for the conservation of rainfall and fertility, used also as fish ponds and to provide water and mud for making composts. The circular ring in the foreground is a compost pit.
图59——两个堆肥坑，里面装满了从运河里捞来的粗饲料和泥土，准备用来堆肥。运河沿岸的这条小路是江苏省常见的交通要道之一。
Fig. 59.—Two compost pits filled with roughage and mud from the canal, in preparation of compost for the fields. The narrow path along the canal is one of the common thoroughfares in Kiangsu province.
在所有运河丰富的省份，运河也充当着收集地表冲积物的水库。在运河沿岸，人们维护着大量的堆肥坑，并在作物轮作时反复填埋，以供田间使用。图59展示了一条运河岸边的两个这样的堆肥坑，它们已经填满了。
In all of the provinces where canals are abundant they also serve as reservoirs for collecting surface washings and along their banks great numbers of compost pits are maintained and repeatedly filled during the season, for use on the fields as the crops are changed. Fig. 59 shows two such pits on the bank of a canal, already filled.
在其他情况下，如图60所示的山东省，田地表面可能被分成宽阔的平原，这些平原被深而宽的沟渠隔开，用于收集暴雨带来的多余水分。正如我们所见，这些沟渠没有排水设施，因此收集到的雨水要么渗漏掉，要么蒸发掉，要么部分通过潜流和毛细上升返回到收集雨水的土壤中，或者直接通过抽水灌溉。山东省的降雨量通常很大，但全年总降水量很少，仅略高于24英寸（约61厘米），因此非常需要保护雨水，并且人们也认真地进行了这项工作。
In other cases, as in the Shantung province, illustrated in Fig. 60, the surface of the field may be thrown into broad leveled lands separated and bounded by deep and wide trenches into which the excess water of very heavy rains may collect. As we saw them there was no provision for draining the trenches and the water thus collected either seeps away or evaporates, or it may be returned in part by underflow and capillary rise to the soil from which it was collected, or be applied directly for irrigation by pumping. In this province the rains may often be heavy but the total fall for the year is small, being little more than twenty-four inches, hence there is the greatest need for its conservation, and this is carefully practiced.
图60 山东省的田地沟渠，用于排水、保存雨水和肥力。沟渠底部宽两英尺，顶部宽六到八英尺，深度两英尺半到三英尺。
Fig. 60.—Trenching of fields for drainage, conservation of rainfall and of fertility, in the Shantung province. Trenches are two feet wide on the bottom, six or eight feet wide at the top, and two and a half to three feet deep.
VI.
SOME CUSTOMS OF THE COMMON PEOPLE.
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3月20日，土佐丸号再次将我们送回上海，正好赶上收到家里的第一封信。一位人力车夫轻快地将我们和沉重的行李箱从码头送到了利顺德饭店，路程超过一英里，一美元6美分，这比这项服务的常规价格要高得多。途中，我们经过几辆图61中所示的那种装满行李的人力车，妇女们骑着这些人力车，车费只有我们的十分之一，但速度更慢，颠簸也更剧烈。
The Tosa Maru brought us again into Shanghai March 20th, just in time for the first letters from home. A ricksha man carried us and our heavy valise at a smart trot from the dock to the Astor House, more than a mile, for 8.6 cents, U. S. currency, and more than the conventional price for the service rendered. On our way we passed several loaded carryalls of the type seen in Fig. 61, on which women were riding for a fare one-tenth that we had paid, but at a slower pace and with many a jolt.
就在半个街区之外，响亮而清晰的合唱声传来，宣布打桩工仍在为利顺德大酒店（Astor House）的附属建筑打地基。5月27日，我们从山东回来时，他们也还在打地基。距离我们第一次见到他们已经过去了88天，但那时工程实际上已经完工。如果这18名工人在此期间连续工作，他们给承包商的服务成本只有205.92美元。在这种情况下，机动打桩工根本无法竞争。这里所有普通工人的工资都很低。十年前，浙江省的农场工人年薪30美元，包括食宿，但现在只有50美元。这相当于大约12.90美元和21.50美元的黄金，比美国每月的工资要低得多。在山东青岛，一位传教士每月付给一位中国厨师10美元，一位从事普通工作的工人每月付给9美元。每月工资为1美元；厨娘负责缝补家务和其他家务，每月2美元。所有家属都住在家里，自己吃饭。这项服务每月收费9.03美元，涵盖了市场营销、花园和草坪的照料以及家务。在中国的传教士认为这样的仆人可靠又令人满意，把钱袋和餐桌上的市场营销都托付给他们，因为他们发现这些仆人不仅诚实，而且比他们自己更擅长讨价还价和精打细算。
The ringing chorus which came loud and clear when yet half a block away announced that the pile drivers were still at work on the foundation for an annex to the Astor House, and so were they on May 27th when we returned from, the Shantung province, 88 days after we saw them first, but with the task then practically completed. Had the eighteen men labored continuously through this interval, the cost of their services to the contractor would have been but $205.92. With these conditions the engine-driven pile driver could not compete. All ordinary labor here receives a low wage. In the Chekiang province farm labor employed by the year received $30 and board, ten years ago, but now is receiving $50. This is at the rate of about $12.90 and $21.50, gold, materially less than there is paid per month in the United States. At Tsingtao in the Shantung province a missionary was paying a Chinese cook ten dollars per month, a man for general work nine dollars per month, and the cook’s wife, for doing the mending and other family service, two dollars per month, all living at home and feeding themselves. This service rendered for $9.03, gold, per month covers the marketing, all care of the garden and lawn as well as all the work in the house. Missionaries in China find such servants reliable and satisfactory, and trust them with the purse and the marketing for the table, finding them not only honest but far better at a bargain and at economical selection than themselves.
图 61——上海街头常见的交通工具，女性使用的频率远远高于男性。
Fig. 61.—A common means of transport on the streets of Shanghai, used much more frequently by women than by men.
我们在英国一家大型船舶建造和修理厂的车间制造了一根土管，雇用了数百名中国机械师，使用最现代、最复杂的机器，工头说，一旦男人们能够理解并接受命令，他们甚至比苏格兰和英格兰的平均水平更擅长店员。江苏省苏州火车站一位受过教育的中国售票员每月的工资是10.75美元（黄金）。我们询问了去伊丽莎白·布莱克医院的路，他自愿护送我们，路程超过一英里。他不接受任何报酬，而我却是一个完全陌生的人，没有任何介绍。
We had a soil tube made in the shops of a large English ship building and repair firm, employing many hundred Chinese as mechanics, using the most modern and complex machinery, and the foreman stated that as soon as the men could understand well enough to take orders they were even better shop hands than the average in Scotland and England. An educated Chinese booking clerk at the Soochow railway station in Kiangsu province was receiving a salary of $10.75, gold, per month. We had inquired the way to the Elizabeth Blake hospital and he volunteered to escort us and did so, the distance being over a mile. He would accept no compensation, and yet I was an entire stranger, without introduction of any kind.
图 62。上海，露天阳光下的缝纫圈。
Fig. 62.—A sewing circle in the open air and sunshine, Shanghai.
我们在中国各地所到之处，只要有事可做，劳动人民通常都显得快乐满足，而且显然营养充足。产业工人阶级组织严密，几个世纪以来一直有自己的行会或工会，而且，一个以……闻名的劳动者也并不罕见。违反了行会规则的人会被立即处理，甚至会不问一声就消失。远离旅游路线，走入人群中，你会觉得每个人都很忙，或者随时准备忙碌。像我们这种流浪汉在这里几乎没有机会，我们怀疑这两个国家是否存在这样的人。有一些残疾人在乞讨，也有慈善机构为他们提供帮助，但就总人口而言，这些人似乎比美国或欧洲的要少。不幸的人和惯常的乞丐聚集在有闲有钱人经常光顾的公共场所，这自然会让游客对这些社会状况的严重程度做出错误的判断。在这些拥挤的人群中，无论是中国人、日本人还是韩国人，我们都没有看到过醉酒的人，但在美国人和欧洲人中却发现了很多醉酒的例子。所有阶层、所有性别的人都使用烟草，英美烟草公司在中国的生意每年达数百万美元。
Everywhere we went in China, the laboring people appeared generally happy and contented if they have something to do, and showed clearly that they were well nourished. The industrial classes are thoroughly organized, having had their guilds or labor unions for centuries and it is not at all uncommon for a laborer who is known to have violated the rules of his guild to be summarily dealt with or even to disappear without questions being asked. In going among the people, away from the lines of tourist travel, one gets the impression that everybody is busy or is in the harness ready to be busy. Tramps of our hobo type have few opportunities here and we doubt if one exists in either of these countries. There are people physically disabled who are asking alms and there are organized charities to help them, but in proportion to the total population these appear to be fewer than in America or Europe. The gathering of unfortunates and habitual beggars about public places frequented by people of leisure and means naturally leads tourists to a wrong judgment regarding the extent of these social conditions. Nowhere among these densely crowded people, either Chinese, Japanese or Korean, did we see one intoxicated, but among Americans and Europeans many instances were observed. All classes and both sexes use tobacco and the British-American Tobacco Company does a business in China amounting to millions of dollars annually.
在这些人中间，我们五个月里只见过两个孩子吵架。两个小男孩在上海南京路上闹事，互相抓着辫子，打得不可开交，直到其中一个孩子的母亲赶来才把他们分开。
During five months among these people we saw but two children in a quarrel. The two little boys were having their trouble on Nanking road, Shanghai, where, grasping each other’s pigtails, they tussled with a vengeance until the mother of one came and parted their ways.
在城市街道上，最常见的景象是流动的小贩，他们兜售热食和糖果。炉子、燃料、生活用品和器具都可能被扛在肩上，用竹竿挑着。图63中的母亲很可能就是这样养家糊口的，孩子们在午餐时穿着年轻人通常穿的蓝白印花布。我们在图10中看到的运河沿岸的农村里，看到了这种印花布采用非常古老、简单但有效的方法印制。这种技艺，就像中国的许多其他技艺一样，是我们看到的家庭传承下来的，代代相传。印刷工站着在一张粗糙的工作台上，一块巨大的立方体石头作为重物，用来压住一块涂了漆的硬纸板，纸板上刻着图案，图案在布料上以白色显示。石头旁边放着一罐用石灰和大豆粉混合制成的浓稠糊状物。在同一房间的一个角落里，一台小型的设备正在研磨大豆，如图64所示。驴子在它的固定住所里工作，每当下班时，它都会在食槽和饲料前停下来。在操作员的右边放着一卷白色棉布，它被固定住，展开后从模版下方穿过，被重物压住。要印刷，只需抬起模版，将布料放在模版下方。然后，熟练地将糊状物用刮板将染料涂抹在布料表面，进而涂抹在模板开口处露出的布料下方。这样，图案就印在了布料的一部分上。然后，提起模板的自由端，用手将布料沿着适当的距离移动，并将模板放到位，准备进行下一次印刷。让染料在布料上干燥，当布料浸入蓝色染料后，被染料保护的部分仍保持白色。几个世纪以来，人们一直用这种简单的方法在印花布上印制图案，为数百万儿童制作服装。在这个古老的印花厂里，烘干室的天花板上悬挂着数百张印有不同图案的模板。在我们大型的印花布厂里，每分钟印制数百码，其机械和化学原理仅在应用和调度的细节上有所不同，而基本原理并无差异。
Among the most frequent sights in the city streets are the itinerant venders of hot foods and confections. Stove, fuel, supplies and appliances may all be carried on the shoulders, swinging from a bamboo pole. The mother in Fig. 63 was quite likely thus supporting her family and the children are seen at lunch, dressed in the blue and white calico prints so generally worn by the young. The printing of this calico by the very ancient, simple yet effective method we witnessed in the farm village along the canal seen in Fig. 10. This art, as with so many others in China, was the inheritance of the family we saw at work, handed down to them through many generations. The printer was standing at a rough work bench upon which a large heavy stone in cubical form served as a weight to hold in place a thoroughly lacquered sheet of tough cardboard in which was cut the pattern to appear in white on the cloth. Beside the stone stood a pot of thick paste prepared from a mixture of lime and soy bean flour. The soy beans were being ground in one corner of the same room by a diminutive edition of such an outfit as seen in Fig. 64. The donkey was working in his permanent abode and whenever off duty he halted before manger and feed. At the operator’s right lay a bolt of white cotton cloth fixed to unroll and pass under the stencil, held stationary by the heavy weight. To print, the stencil was raised and the cloth brought to place under it. The paste was then deftly spread with a paddle over the surface and thus upon the cloth beneath wherever exposed through the openings in the stencil. This completes the printing of the pattern on one section of the bolt of cloth. The free end of the stencil is then raised, the cloth passed along the proper distance by hand and the stencil dropped in place for the next application. The paste is permitted to dry upon the cloth and when the bolt has been dipped into the blue dye the portions protected by the paste remain white. In this simple manner has the printing of calico been done for centuries for the garments of millions of children. From the ceiling of the drying room in this printery of olden times were hanging some hundreds of stencils bearing different patterns. In our great calico mills, printing hundreds of yards per minute, the mechanics and the chemistry differ only in detail of application and in dispatch, not in fundamental principle.
图 63. 吃午餐。
Fig. 63.—Eating lunch.
图 64——通常用于磨豆类和各种谷物的石磨。
Fig. 64.—Stone mill in common use for grinding beans and various kinds of grain.
我们几乎在城外的任何一个方向旅行，在空气平静的宜人早晨，为棉布铺设经纱可以看到，稍后在乡间家中进行编织。我们多次在清晨看到这种工作正在进行，通常是在路边或空旷的地方，如图65所示，但当天晚些时候很少看到。经纱铺好后，每根经纱都会被卷在担架上，然后运回家进行编织。
In almost any direction we travelled outside the city, in the pleasant mornings when the air was still, the laying of warp for cotton cloth could be seen, to be woven later in the country homes. We saw this work in progress many times and in many places in the early morning, usually along some roadside or open place, as seen in Fig. 65, but never later in the day. When the warp is laid each will be rolled upon its stretcher and removed to the house to be woven.
在江苏省的许多地方，田野里都可以看到成排的大型染坑，它们直径六到八英尺，深四到五英尺。在一个案例中，我们观察到一组染坑有九个。有些染坑被整齐地遮蔽在活的乔木下面，如图66所示。但近年来，这种纺织、染色和印花工艺正在被外国制造的廉价印花布所取代，我们看到的大多数染坑现在不再用于此目的，图中的两个染坑被用作肥料容器。然而，我们的翻译表示，由于外国商品缺乏耐用性，人们对其越来越不满；我们看到许多案例大量染成蓝色的布料在墓地上被晾晒。
In many places in Kiangsu province batteries of the large dye pits were seen sunk in the fields and lined with cement. These were six to eight feet in diameter and four to five feet deep. In one case observed there were nine pits in the set. Some of the pits were neatly sheltered beneath live arbors, as represented in Fig. 66. But much of this spinning, weaving, dyeing and printing of late years is being displaced by the cheaper calicos of foreign make and most of the dye pits we saw were not now used for this purpose, the two in the illustration serving as manure receptacles. Our interpreter stated however that there is a growing dissatisfaction with foreign goods on account of their lack of durability; and we saw many cases where the cloth dyed blue was being dried in large quantities on the grave lands.
图 65——为四卷棉布铺设经线。
Fig. 65.—Laying warp in the country for four bolts of cotton cloth.
在另一户人家，我们观察了近一个小时，观察了一种打棉线并将其铺成床垫和床罩的方法。由于这户人家也是作坊，而且正对着狭窄的街道，所以我们可以不受干扰地进行这项工作。晚上关上门的厚重木质百叶窗，实际上是一个大约七平方英尺（约2.2平方米）的工作台，放在可移动的支架上。在工作台和人行道之间，勉强够得着工作而不妨碍交通，另外三面则有三四英尺宽的地板空间。祖母和妻子坐在屋后，四个年纪较小的孩子进进出出玩耍。房间的两侧摆放着装满原棉和工作用具的容器。后面可能有厨房和卧室，但看不到门。做好的床垫被仔细地卷起来，用纸包好，悬挂在天花板上。在我们来访之前的早晨，这张临时工作台上，桌面离地面两英尺高，铺着一大块柔软的白色棉布，面积超过六英尺见方，厚度足足十二英寸。桌子的两边，分别坐着父亲和儿子，十二年过去了，他们每个人都拨动着沉重的竹弓的弦，从棉团中拔出棉绒，然后将其均匀地撒在不断增长的棉被上。两根弦同时发出的音调远低于大黄蜂的嗡嗡声。沉重的弓由一根固定在操作者身上的绳子固定，这样操作者就可以用一只手操作弓，并以不同于图67中日本人习惯的方式轻松地移动弓。用这种方法，棉绒被迅速拔出，并被熟练而均匀地铺在棉被上。拨动弓弦的设备与日本使用的设备类似。
In another home for nearly an hour we observed a method of beating cotton and of laying it to serve as the body for mattresses and the coverlets for beds. This we could do without intrusion because the home was also the work shop and opened full width directly upon the narrow street. The heavy wooden shutters which closed the home at night were serving as a work bench about seven feet square, laid upon movable supports. There was barely room to work between it and the sidewalk without impeding traffic, and on the three other sides there was a floor space three or four feet wide. In the rear sat grandmother and wife while in and out the four younger children were playing. Occupying the two sides of the room were receptacles filled with raw cotton and appliances for the work. There may have been a kitchen and sleeping room behind but no door, as such, was visible. The finished mattresses, carefully rolled and wrapped in paper, were suspended from the ceiling. On the improvised work table, with its top two feet above the floor, there had been laid in the morning before our visit, a mass of soft white cotton more than six feet square and fully twelve inches deep. On opposite sides of this table the father and his son, of twelve years, each twanged the string of their heavy bamboo bows, snapping the lint from the wads of cotton and flinging it broadcast in an even layer over the surface of the growing mattress, the two strings the while emitting tones pitched far below the hum of the bumblebee. The heavy bow was steadied by a cord secured around the body of the operator, allowing him to manage it with one hand and to move readily around his work in a manner different from the custom of the Japanese seen in Fig. 67. By this means the lint was expeditiously plucked and skillfully and uniformly laid, the twanging being effected by an appliance similar to that used in Japan.
图66——编织凉亭下的两个染坑，如今已废弃，用作肥料容器。后面的树木是农舍中常见的典型竹丛。
Fig. 66.—Two dye pits under woven arbor shelter, now abandoned for their original purpose and used as manure receptacles. The trees in the rear are a typical clump of bamboo so frequently seen about farm houses.
图 67——日式家庭使用的弓，用于铺开棉花制作填料和棉絮。
Fig 67.—Japanese form of bow used in the home for spreading cotton in making wadding and cotton batting.
反复地从棉桶中取出小块棉绒，并将其均匀地分布在整个表面上。灵巧均匀，床垫向上延伸，边缘完美垂直，边缘平直，边角方正。如此一来，床垫的纹理便完全均匀，压缩后厚度均匀，无硬块。
Repeatedly, taken in small bits from the barrel of cotton, the lint was distributed over the entire surface with great. dexterity and uniformity, the mattress growing upward with perfectly vertical sides, straight edges and square corners. In this manner a thoroughly uniform texture is secured which compresses into a body of even thickness, free from hard places.
制作床垫的下一步更加简单快捷。祖母身边放着一篮长长的粗纺棉线轴，很可能是她亲手织成的。父亲从墙上取下一根细竹竿，像鱼竿一样，六英尺长，挑了一个线轴，将线穿过细头的线眼。父亲一手拿着竹竿和线轴，另一手拿着穿过线眼的线尾，将线穿过床垫递给儿子，儿子用手指勾住线，将线带到棉床的一端。与此同时，父亲将竹竿甩回身侧，用手指勾住线，将线垂到儿子对面的棉床上。这样，棉床上就铺上了双股线，但竹竿仍在床上来回摆动，父子俩以每分钟四十到五十圈的速度勾住线，并将它们放在棉床上。很快，床垫的整个表面就铺满了双股线。接下来，用一根厚重的竹滚筒从中间横过线绳，小心地从一侧滚到中间，再滚到另一侧。然后，再铺一层线绳，同样用同一根滚筒压实；然后再铺一层线绳，同样用另一根竹滚筒压实；最后，再铺一层线绳，同样用竹滚筒压实。在铺棉线之前，桌子上也铺了类似的线绳网。接下来，用一个直径两英尺的平底圆形浅篮状物轻轻地将棉线从十二英寸厚压到六英寸厚。现在，将编织好的线绳翻过床垫的边缘，缝合起来。之后，用两个直径十八英寸的厚重实木圆盘，父子俩把棉花压缩到厚度只有三英寸。剩下的工作就是小心翼翼地折叠成品，并用油纸包裹，然后悬挂在天花板上。
The next step in building the mattress is even more simple and expeditious. A basket of long bobbins of roughly spun cotton was near the grandmother and probably her handiwork. The father took from the wall a slender bamboo rod like a fish-pole, six feet long, and selecting one of the spools, threaded the strand through an eye in the small end. With the pole and spool in one hand and the free end of the thread, passing through the eye, in the other, the father reached the thread across the mattress to the boy who hooked his finger over it, carrying it to one edge of the bed of cotton. While this was doing the father had whipped the pole back to his side and caught the thread over his own finger, bringing this down upon the cotton opposite his son. There was thus laid a double strand, but the pole continued whipping back and forth across the bed, father and son catching the threads and bringing them to place on the cotton at the rate of forty to fifty courses per minute, and in a very short time the entire surface of the mattress had been laid with double strands. A heavy bamboo roller was next laid across the strands at the middle, passed carefully to one side, back again to the middle and then to the other edge. Another layer of threads was then laid diagonally and this similarly pressed with the same roller; then another diagonally the other way and finally straight across in both directions. A similar network of strands had been laid upon the table before spreading the cotton. Next a flat bottomed, circular, shallow basketlike form two feet in diameter was used to gently compress the material from twelve to six inches in thickness. The woven threads were now turned over the edge of the mattress on all sides and sewed down, after which, by means of two heavy solid wooden disks eighteen inches in diameter, father and son compressed the cotton until the thickness was reduced to three inches. There remained the task of carefully folding and wrapping the finished piece in oiled paper and of suspending it from the ceiling.
3 月 20 日，在参观上海的文路和南京路市场时，我们第一次惊讶于蔬菜在中国人日常饮食中的普及程度。我们看到一长串推车的男子从运河穿过街道，扛着一捆捆长一英尺、直径五英寸的油菜花。这些车是从乡下乘船来的，每艘船上都载着数吨多汁的油菜花叶和茎。我们数了一下，有 50 个推车的男子快速接连经过街道上的一个指定地点，每个推车的男子都扛着 300 到 500 磅的油菜花，他们移动得如此之快，以至于很难跟上他们的步伐，我们在跟随一列火车到达目的地的二十分钟里了解到了这一点。在这段时间里，火车上没有一个人停下或放慢脚步。
On March 20th, when visiting the Boone Road and Nanking Road markets in Shanghai, we had our first surprise regarding the extent to which vegetables enter into the daily diet of the Chinese. We had observed long processions of wheelbarrow men moving from the canals through the streets carrying large loads of the green tips of rape in bundles a foot long and five inches in diameter. These had come from the country on boats each carrying tons of the succulent leaves and stems. We had counted as many as fifty wheelbarrow men passing a given point on the street in quick succession, each carrying 300 to 500 pounds of the green rape and moving so rapidly that it was not easy to keep pace with them, as we learned in following one of the trains during twenty minutes to its destination. During this time not a man in the train halted or slackened his pace.
这种油菜在田野里种植非常广泛，茎尖在嫩的时候切下来，像卷心菜一样煮熟或蒸熟后食用。大量的油菜也会用盐腌制，大约每100磅油菜要用20磅盐。如图68所示，这种油菜和许多其他蔬菜也经过腌制出售，作为佐餐米饭的佐料，而米饭通常不加盐或其他调料。
This rape is very extensively grown in the fields, the tips of the stems cut when tender and eaten, after being boiled or steamed, after the manner of cabbage. Very large quantities are also packed with salt in the proportion of about twenty pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of the rape. This, Fig. 68, and many other vegetables are sold thus pickled and used as relishes with rice, which invariably is cooked and served without salt or other seasoning.
另一种广泛种植的农作物，不仅用于人类食物，也部分用于土壤氮源，与我们的紫花苜蓿关系密切。这就是紫花苜蓿（Medicago astragalus），图69中可以看到两片紫花苜蓿田。人们在开花前采集其茎的嫩尖，将其煮熟或蒸熟后食用。外国人称之为中国“三叶草”。人们也会将茎煮熟，然后晒干，以便在作物淡季时食用。如果在很嫩的时候采摘，中国富裕的家庭为嫩芽支付了额外的高价，有时每磅的价格高达 20 到 28 美分（我们的货币）。
Another field crop very extensively grown for human food, and partly as a source of soil nitrogen, is closely allied to our alfalfa. This is the Medicago astragalus, two beds of which are seen in Fig. 69. Tender tips of the stems are gathered before the stage of blossoming is reached and served as food after boiling or steaming. It is known among the foreigners as Chinese “clover.” The stems are also cooked and then dried for use when the crop is out of season. When picked very young, wealthy Chinese families pay an extra high price for the tender shoots, sometimes as much as 20 to 28 cents, our currency, per pound.
图 68——用嫩油菜制成的“腌白菜”，在上海文路市场出售。
Fig. 68.—“Salted cabbage,” prepared from young rape, displayed for sale in Boone Road market, Shanghai.
清晨，市场里挤满了前来采购的人们。拥挤的景象，加上种类繁多的蔬菜，几乎与伦敦的比林斯盖特鱼市一样令人印象深刻。下表列出了在那里观察到的蔬菜种类及其售价。
The markets are thronged with people making their purchases in the early mornings, and the congested condition, with the great variety of vegetables, makes it almost as impressive a sight as Billingsgate fish market in London. In the following table we give a list of vegetables observed there and the prices at which they were selling.
1909 年 4 月 6 日，上海文路市场出售的蔬菜清单，价格以美元表示。
LIST OF VEGETABLES DISPLAYED FOR SALE IN BOONE ROAD MARKET, SHANGHAI, APRIL 6TH, 1909, WITH PRICES EXPRESSED IN U. S. CURRENCY.
这份长长的清单主要列出了某个集市日出售的新鲜蔬菜，但远非完整。清单记录的只是在横跨几乎一个街区的集市时，从一侧走到另一侧的记录。几乎所有商品都按重量出售，而正确称量的问题可以通过每位购买者携带自己的秤来有效解决，他们会在摊主面前毫不犹豫地称量。这些秤的样式仿照旧时的杆秤，但由细长的木杆或竹杆制成，配有刻度和滑动平衡器，所有悬挂物均由绳子制成。
This long list, made up chiefly of fresh vegetables displayed for sale on one market day, is by no means complete. The record is only such as was made in passing down one side and across one end of the market occupying nearly one city block. Nearly everything is sold by weight and the problem of correct weights is effectively solved by each purchaser carrying his own scales, which he unhesitatingly uses in the presence of the dealer. These scales are made on the pattern of the old time steelyards but from slender rods of wood or bamboo provided with a scale and sliding poise, the suspensions all being made with strings.
我们站在旁边，看着他们买下两只公鸡，然后讨价还价。一只巨大的镂空篮子里放着十几只活鸡。顾客一只一只地拿出来，用手摸了摸，最后选中了两只，报了价。摊主把鸡的脚绑在一起，称重，然后宣布结果；顾客用自己的秤核对了一下价格。一阵热烈的对话随后，顾客不停地比划着，把鸡扔进篮子里，转身走开，而庄家则更加认真了。最后，买家转过身，再次把公鸡放在秤上称重，叫了一位旁观者称重，然后带着明显的不屑一顾的表情把鸡扔向庄家。庄家接住鸡，放进了顾客的篮子里。风波平息了，庄家接受了92美分（墨西哥比索）的报价。这两只鸡个头很大，每只的重量肯定超过3磅，但他付的钱却不到我们货币的40美分。
We stood by through the purchasing of two cockerels and the dickering over their weight. A dozen live birds were under cover in a large, open-work basket. The customer took out the birds one by one, examining them by touch, finally selecting two, the price being named. These the dealer tied together by their feet and weighed them, announcing the result; whereupon the customer checked the statement with his own scales. An animated dialogue followed, punctuated with many gesticulations and with the customer tossing the birds into the basket and turning to go away while the dealer grew more earnest. The purchaser finally turned back, and again balancing the roosters upon his scales, called a bystander to read the weight, and then flung them in apparent disdain at the dealer, who caught them and placed them in the customer’s basket. The storm subsided and the dealer accepted 92c, Mexican, for the two birds, They were good sized roosters and must have dressed more than three pounds each, yet for the two he paid less than 40 cents in our currency.
图 69——花园里种植了两畦紫花苜蓿（Medicago astragalus），当季可作为人类的食物，后期则可增强土壤肥力。
Fig 69.—Two beds of Chinese clover (Medicago astragalus) grown in the garden for human food in the season and for soil fertility later.
竹笋在中国、韩国和日本非常普遍，它们生长时，让人联想到巨大的芦笋茎，有些直径可达三英寸甚至五英寸，切开后高度可达一英尺。它们被大量地运往各个不产竹笋的省份，或者竹子在非当季时也会生长。我们在长崎看到的竹子，如图22所示，可能来自广州、汕头，甚至可能是台湾。竹子的形态、枝叶和花朵在景观中呈现出最美的效果，尤其是与树木组合在一起时。它们通常如图 66所示，在住宅周围不易利用的地方小丛种植。和芦笋芽一样，竹笋在四月到八月之间长至最高，有时甚至超过 30 甚至 60 英尺高。竹笋从肉质的地下茎或根中萌发，这些茎或根储存的养分使其能够快速生长，在早期阶段，竹笋可以在 24 小时内长到 12 英寸以上。但是，虽然竹子在第一季就能长到最大尺寸，但还需要三四年的时间才能使其木材成熟和变硬，从而适合竹茎的各种用途。看来，各种竹子被引进到我国许多地方并大规模种植的时机已经到来。
Bamboo sprouts are very generally used in China, Korea and Japan and when one sees them growing they suggest giant stalks of asparagus, some of them being three and even five inches in diameter and a foot in hight at the stage for cutting. They are shipped in large quantities from province to province where they do not grow or when they are out of season. Those we saw in Nagasaki, referred to in Fig. 22, had come from Canton or Swatow or possibly Formosa. The form, foliage and bloom of the bamboo give the most beautiful effects in the landscape, especially when grouped with tree forms. They are usually cultivated in small clumps about dwellings in places not otherwise readily utilized, as seen in Fig. 66. Like the asparagus bud, the bamboo sprout grows to its full hight between April and August, even when it exceeds thirty or even sixty feet in hight. The buds spring from fleshy underground stems or roots whose stored nourishment permits this rapid growth, which in its earlier stages may exceed twelve inches in twenty-four hours. But while the full size of the plant is attained the first season, three or four years are required to ripen and harden the wood sufficiently to make it suitable for the many uses to which the stems are put. It would seem that the time must come when some of the many forms of bamboo will be introduced and largely grown in many parts of this country.
图70——4月6日，上海文路菜市场。下方的大块蔬菜是莲藕。
Fig. 70.—Boone Road vegetable market, April 6th, Shanghai, China. The large vegetables in the lower section are lotus roots.
图 71、莲花池中盛开的莲花；人们种植莲花是为了获取其肉质根作为食物，如图 70 所示。
Fig. 71.—Lotus pond with plant in bloom; cultivated for their fleshy roots used for food, shown in Fig. 70.
莲藕是另一种广泛种植的食材，在广州至东京等地广泛种植。图70的下半部分展示了莲藕，图71中则展示了盛开的莲藕，它们生长在水中，这是莲藕的自然栖息地。莲花生长在永久性池塘中，池塘里的水不容易排干，无法种植水稻或其他作物，莲花根部也被广泛运输。
Lotus roots form another article of diet largely used and widely cultivated from Canton to Tokyo. These are seen in the lower section of Fig. 70, and the plants in bloom in Fig. 71, growing in water, their natural habitat. The lotus is grown in permanent ponds not readily drained for rice or other crops, and the roots are widely shipped.
多种发芽的豆类和豌豆以及其他蔬菜（如洋葱）的芽在中国和日本的市场上非常常见，至少在冬末春初期间是如此，它们作为食品出售，具有不同的风味和消化品质，并且无疑在营养方面具有重要的有利作用。
Sprouted beans and peas of many kinds and the sprouts of other vegetables, such as onions, are very generally seen in the markets of both China and Japan, at least during the late winter and early spring, and are sold as foods, having different flavors and digestive qualities, and no doubt with important advantageous effects in nutrition.
生姜是另一种种植非常广泛的作物。它通常以根茎的形式在市场上出售。在中国，没有什么比荸荠更普遍地出现在街头叫卖了。荸荠是一种小球茎或肉质鳞茎，形状和大小与小洋葱相似。男孩们会去皮，然后把一打荸荠串在一根细长的棍子上出售，这些棍子的长度与一根毛衣针相当。此外，还有生长在水渠中的荸荠，其果实形似角质坚果，其形状使其得名“水牛角”。还有一种名为水草（Hydropyrum latifolium）的植物生长在江苏省，那里的土地过于潮湿，不适合种植水稻。这种植物的叶冠柔软多汁，剥去外层较粗的叶子，就像剥去玉米穗的外壳一样。食用的部分是中间嫩嫩的新芽，煮熟后可以做成一道美味佳肴。农民的售价为每百斤三至四美元墨西哥元，或每英担0.97至1.29美元，每英亩的回报为13至20美元。
Ginger is another crop which is very widely and extensively cultivated. It is generally displayed in the market in the root form. No one thing was more generally hawked about the streets of China than the water chestnut. This is a small corm or fleshy bulb having the shape and size of a small onion. Boys pare them and sell a dozen spitted together on slender sticks the length of a knitting needle. Then there are the water caltropes, grown in the canals, producing a fruit resembling a horny nut having a shape which suggests for them the name “buffalo-horn”. Still another plant, known as water-grass (Hydropyrum latifolium) is grown in Kiangsu province where the land is too wet for rice. The plant has a tender succulent crown of leaves and the peeling of the outer coarser ones away suggests the husking of an ear of green corn. The portion eaten is the central tender new growth, and when cooked forms a delicate savory dish. The farmers’ selling price is three to four dollars, Mexican, per hundred catty, or $.97 to $1.29 per hundredweight, and the return per acre is from $13 to $20.
市场清单中列出的少量动物产品不应被视为这些人饮食中动物性食物与植物性食物的比例。然而，他们的素食主义程度确实远高于大多数西方国家，而中国、韩国和日本农业的高维持效率很大程度上也得益于他们主要采用素食饮食。霍普金斯在其《土壤肥力与永久农业》（第234页）一书中明确指出了这一点。事实陈述：“1000 蒲式耳谷物的食用价值至少是其生产的肉或奶的五倍，可供食用的人也是其五倍”。他还提请注意罗瑟姆斯特德对生长和育肥牛、羊和猪进行的多项饲养实验的结果。这些实验表明，牛每吃掉 100 磅干物质，就会直接消耗掉 57.3 磅，这些物质会散失到空气中，就像木头在炉子里燃烧时除了灰烬之外的所有物质一样；牛的粪便中留下 36.5 磅，而储存起来的只有 6.2 磅。羊的相应数字分别为 60.1 磅、31.9 磅和 8 磅；猪的相应数字分别为 65.7 磅、16.7 磅和 17.6 磅。但是，动物体内储存的物质中只有不到三分之二能够成为人类的食物，因此，在牛以人类食物形式食用的干物质中，每100磅只有4磅，而羊可以食用5磅，猪可以食用11磅。
The small number of animal products which are included in the market list given should not be taken as indicating the proportion of animal to vegetable foods in the dietaries of these people. It is nevertheless true that they are vegetarians to a far higher degree than are most western nations, and the high maintenance efficiency of the agriculture of China, Korea and Japan is in great measure rendered possible by the adoption of a diet so largely vegetarian. Hopkins, in his Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, page 234, makes this pointed statement of fact: “1000 bushels of grain has at least five times as much food value and will support five times as many people as will the meat or milk that can be made from it”. He also calls attention to the results of many Rothamsted feeding experiments with growing and fattening cattle, sheep and swine, showing that the cattle destroyed outright, in every 100 pounds of dry substance eaten, 57.3 pounds, this passing off into the air, as does all of wood except the ashes, when burned in the stove; they left in the excrements 36.5 pounds, and stored as increase but 6.2 pounds of the 100. With sheep the corresponding figures were 60.1 pounds; 31.9 pounds and 8 pounds; and with swine they were 65.7 pounds; 16.7 pounds and 17.6 pounds. But less than two-thirds of the substance stored in the animal can become food for man and hence we get but four pounds in one hundred of the dry substances eaten by cattle in the form of human food; but five pounds from the sheep and eleven pounds from swine.
鉴于这些关系，最近才通过严格的研究被确立为科学事实，值得注意的是，这些非常古老的人类很久以前就不再将牛作为牛奶和肉类的生产者；他们更多地使用绵羊作为毛皮和羊毛而不是食物；而猪是他们保留的三种动物中唯一一种，作为将粗糙物质转化为人类食物的中间人。
In view of these relations, only recently established as scientific facts by rigid research, it is remarkable that these very ancient people came long ago to discard cattle as milk and meat producers; to use sheep more for their pelts and wool than for food; while swine are the one kind of the three classes which they did retain in the role of middleman as transformers of coarse substances into human food.
显然，将多汁的蔬菜作为人类食物具有重要的优势。在成熟的阶段，它们的消化率更高，从而使动物的排泄更加容易。它们的氮含量相对较高，这在一定程度上弥补了肉类的损失。通过利用土壤种植人类可以直接消化的植物，动物每排出100磅的绝对排泄物就能节省60磅，并将自身的排泄物返回田地以维持土壤肥力。将这些未成熟的植物大量用作食物，它们能够产出大量的作物，这在其他情况下是不可能的，因为它们可以在更短的时间内生长，使同样的土壤能够产出更多的作物。此外，在深秋和初春时节，当季节太冷，每天的日照时间太短，作物无法成熟时，它们也能产出大量的作物。
It is clear that in the adoption of the succulent forms of vegetables as human food important advantages are gained. At this stage of maturity they have a higher digestibility, thus making the elimination of the animal less difficult. Their nitrogen content is relatively higher and this in a measure compensates for loss of meat. By devoting the soil to growing vegetation which man can directly digest they have saved 60 pounds per 100 of absolute waste by the animal, returning their own wastes to the field for the maintenance of fertility. In using these immature forms of vegetation so largely as food they are able to produce an immense amount that would otherwise be impossible, for this is grown in a shorter time, permitting the same soil to produce more crops. It is also produced late in the fall and early in the spring when the season is too cold and the hours of sunshine too few each day to permit of ripening crops.
VII.
THE FUEL PROBLEM, BUILDING AND TEXTILE MATERIALS.
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随着人口的增长，对耕地产品材料的需求不断增长，包括食品、服装、家具和绳索，因此，更好的土壤管理就显得尤为重要。随着矿物燃料成本的不断上升和最终枯竭；随着木材和纸张需求的不断增长，木材正在迅速消失；随着树木生长速度的必然缓慢，以及世界能够用于造林的土地面积的极其有限，必然会有这样一种情况：在短周期的轮作中，农场上不仅会长出纸张和木材替代品，还会长出燃料。充分利用每一条流入大海的河流，加上风力和海岸线上可能转化的波浪能，都无法完全满足未来对电力和热力的需求；因此，只有当科学和工程技术能够设计出方法来转化我们不断旋转的无限空间能量时，其经济性接近现在农作物所表现出的经济性，良好的土壤管理才能摆脱满足世界对电力和热力部分需求的任务。
With the vast and ever increasing demands made upon materials which are the products of cultivated fields, for food, for apparel, for furnishings and for cordage, better soil management must grow more important as populations multiply. With the increasing cost and ultimate exhaustion of mineral fuel; with our timber vanishing rapidly before the ever growing demands for lumber and paper; with the inevitably slow growth of trees and the very limited areas which the world can ever afford to devote to forestry, the time must surely come when, in short period rotations, there will be grown upon the farm materials from which to manufacture not only paper and the substitutes for lumber, but fuels as well. The complete utilization of every stream which reaches the sea, reinforced by the force of the winds and the energy of the waves which may be transformed along the coast lines, cannot fully meet the demands of the future for power and heat; hence only in the event of science and engineering skill becoming able to devise means for transforming the unlimited energy of space through which we are ever whirled, with an economy approximating that which crops now exhibit, can good soil management be relieved of the task of meeting a portion of the world’s demand for power and heat.
当这些声明在 1905 年发表时，我们并不知道几个世纪以来，中国、韩国一直存在着日本人口密度高，需要用普通的耕作方式大面积种植作物，用于燃料、建筑材料以及纺织。因此，我们惊讶的众多原因之一就是这些人解决了燃料问题和保暖方法。他们的解决方案直接而简单。他们穿着衣服，无需燃料取暖，只燃烧那些不能食用、不能喂给动物或无法用于其他用途的粗茎。这些人仍然使用运输距离内可耕地上生长的木材，并将大量木材转化为木炭，使长距离运输更加便捷。直到最近一百年，这些民族以及其他所有民族才开始普遍使用煤炭、焦炭、石油和天然气等矿物燃料。然而，中国人自古以来就一直在本地使用煤炭、焦炭、石油和天然气。两千多年来，四川省许多深井的卤水都利用井中天然气燃烧产生的热量蒸发，这些热量通过竹竿输送到锅中，再通过铁制引水口燃烧。在同一省份的其他地区，许多卤水则用煤火蒸发。亚历山大·霍西估计，四川省每年的盐产量超过6亿磅。
When these statements were made in 1905 we did not know that for centuries there had existed in China, Korea and Japan a density of population such as to require the extensive cultivation of crops for fuel and building material, as well as for fabrics, by the ordinary methods of tillage, and hence another of the many surprises we had was the solution these people had reached of their fuel problem and of how to keep warm. Their solution has been direct and the simplest possible. Dress to make fuel for warmth of body unnecessary, and burn the coarser stems of crops, such as cannot be eaten, fed to animals or otherwise made useful. These people still use what wood can be grown on the untillable land within transporting distance, and convert much wood into charcoal, making transportation over longer distances easier. The general use of mineral fuels, such as coal, coke, oils and gas, had been impossible to these as to every other people until within the last one hundred years. Coal, coke, oil and natural gas, however, have been locally used by the Chinese from very ancient times. For more than two thousand years brine from many deep wells in Szechwan province has been evaporated with heat generated by the burning of natural gas from wells, conveyed through bamboo stems to the pans and burned from iron terminals. In other sections of the same province much brine is evaporated over coal fires. Alexander Hosie estimates the production of salt in Szechwan province at more than 600 million pounds annually.
这里也在一定程度上使用煤炭取暖，煤炭在地底的凹坑中燃烧，烟气随处散发。这种取暖方式与我们二月份在横滨邮局看到的一样。炉火放在直径超过两英尺的大铁盆里，简单地摆放在房间周围，有三个炉子同时使用。这些国家的住宅不使用取暖炉。
Coal is here used also to some extent for warming the houses, burned in pits sunk in the floor, the smoke escaping where it may. The same method of heating we saw in use in the post office at Yokohama during February. The fires were in large iron braziers more than two feet across the top, simply set about the room, three being in operation. Stoves for house warming are not used in dwellings in these countries.
在中国和日本，我们都见过用煤粉和稀薄的黏土混合，制成中等大小橙子形状的制品。木炭的造型也类似，如图72所示。使用生产米糖浆的副产品进行水泥搅拌。在南京，我们饶有兴致地观察了另一种生产木炭团的方法。一位中国工人坐在车间的泥地上。他身边放着一堆木炭粉、一碟米糖浆副产品和一盆湿润的木炭粉。他的两腿之间放着一块沉重的铁块，里面装着一个略呈锥形的模具，模具深两英寸，顶部直径两英寸半，还有一把重达几磅的铁锤。他左手拿着一个短而重的捣打工具，右手将一小撮湿润的木炭放入模具中；然后用锤子精准地敲击捣打工具三次，将湿润的、粘稠的木炭压成非常紧密的一层。再加入一小撮木炭，重复此过程，直到模具填满，然后团块被压出。
In both China and Japan we saw coal dust put into the form and size of medium oranges by mixing it with a thin paste of clay. Charcoal is similarly molded, as seen in Fig. 72, using a byproduct from the manufacture of rice syrup for cementing. In Nanking we watched with much interest the manufacture of charcoal briquets by another method. A Chinese workman was seated upon the earth floor of a shop. By his side was a pile of powdered charcoal, a dish of rice syrup byproduct and a basin of the moistened charcoal powder. Between his legs was a heavy mass of iron containing a slightly conical mold two inches deep, two and a half inches across at the top and a heavy iron hammer weighing several pounds. In his left hand he held a short heavy ramming tool and with his right placed in the mold a pinch of the moistened charcoal; then followed three well directed blows from the hammer upon the ramming tool, compressing the charge of moistened, sticky charcoal into a very compact layer. Another pinch of charcoal was added and the process repeated until the mold was filled, when the briquet was forced out.
图 72——用米水或粘土制成木炭球，用作燃料。
Fig. 72.—Charcoal balls briquetted with rice water or clay, for use as fuel.
通过这种最简单的机制，人们只利用了自身可用能量的一小部分，就将木炭施加到巨大的压力下，这种压力只有使用最好的液压机才能达到。此外，他还运用了最近获得专利的重复小剂量装料的原理，该原理已应用于我们大型、最高效的棉花和干草压榨机，这使得木炭的密度远高于添加大量装料的情况。中国人在这方面，就像在其他成千上万种方式中一样，在机械原理的应用上非常出色。他的一天的产量不多，但他的耐心却似乎无限。他裸露着手臂和腰部的身体，展现出活力和饱食的神情，脸上也洋溢着满足的神情。
By this simplest possible mechanism, the man, utilizing but a small part of his available energy, was subjecting the charcoal to an enormous pressure such as we attain only with the best hydraulic presses, and he was using the principle of repeated small charges recently patented and applied in our large and most efficient cotton and hay presses, which permit much denser bales to be made than is possible when large charges are added, and the Chinese is here, as in a thousand other ways, thoroughly sound in his application of mechanical principles. His output for the day was small but his patience seemed unlimited. His arms and body, bared to the waist, showed vigor and good feeding, while his face wore the look of contentment.
四亿人民的血脉中流淌着四千年的传承，在一个拥有如此丰富煤炭资源、水力资源、森林资源和农业潜力的国家，未来必将蓬勃发展，并发展成为对这个国家而言最美好、最崇高的事业。如果他们能够保持经济和工业，并运用能源，按照科学技术如今已实现的路线，开发、引导和利用河流和煤田的能源，同时走和平与美德的道路，那么，对于这样一个民族来说，几乎没有什么价值是无法实现的。
With forty centuries of such inheritance coursing in the veins of four hundred millions of people, in a country possessed of such marvelous wealth of coal and water power, of forest and of agricultural possibilities, there should be a future speedily blossoming and ripening into all that is highest and best for such a nation. If they will retain their economies and their industry and use their energies to develop, direct and utilize the power in their streams and in their coal fields along the lines which science has now made possible to them, at the same time walking in paths of peace and virtue, there is little worth while which may not come to such a people.
图18中描绘的山东农民身着冬装，图73中描绘的江苏妇女也身着相应的冬装，是减少食物摄入和保存体内热量的典型例子。观察一下他穿着的棉衣和绗缝上衣，裤子也用类似的材料系在脚踝处，脚上穿着多层袜子和厚毡底的布鞋。这些经过填充、绗缝、束带和系带的服装，将大量的空气融入并封存于有效材料中，从而在不增加服装重量的情况下，无需花费任何成本就能获得额外的保暖效果。在这些外衣下面，还穿着几件不同重量的内衣，它们在最寒冷的天气里也能有效地保存温暖，并可以根据不同的温度变化进行广泛的调节。很难想象，是否有一种适合这些人情况的、初始成本和维护费用更低的服装。中国内地会的埃文斯牧师在四川省桑京居住多年，他估计，一个农民的一旦购买了衣柜，每年的维护费用为 2.25 美元，这笔钱用于购买维修和更新的材料。
A Shantung farmer in winter dress, Fig. 18, and the Kiangsu woman portrayed in Fig. 73, in corresponding costume, are typical illustrations of the manner in which food for body warmth is minimized and of the way the heat generated in the body is conserved. Observe his wadded and quilted frock, his trousers of similar goods tied about the ankle, with his feet clad in multiple socks and cloth shoes provided with thick felted soles. These types of dress, with the wadding, quilting, belting and tying, incorporate and confine as part of the effective material a large volume of air, thus securing without cost, much additional warmth without increasing the weight of the garments. Beneath these outer garments several under pieces of different weights are worn which greatly conserve the warmth during the coldest weather and make possible a wide range of adjustment to suit varying changes in temperature. It is doubtful if there could be devised a wardrobe suited to the conditions of these people at a smaller first cost and maintenance expense. Rev. E. A. Evans, of the China Inland Mission, for many years residing at Sunking in Szechwan, estimated that a farmer’s wardrobe, once it was procured, could be maintained with an annual expenditure of $2.25 of our currency, this sum procuring the materials for both repairs and renewals.
蒙古族普遍奉行的、深入细微的个体经济，正是这种经济模式支撑了蒙古民族在其悠久历史中的巨大力量。这种特点不仅体现在他们对燃料问题的处理上，也体现在所有其他方面。吴太太是浙江省一个25英亩稻田的主人和经理，她家里有一个砖砌的炕，长七英尺，宽七英尺，高约二十八英寸，冬天可以在里面生火取暖。炕顶上铺着席子，白天可以当床，晚上可以铺床。在山东省，我们拜访了一位富裕的农民在这里发现了两张炕，分别位于不同的卧室，都由厨房的余热取暖，厨房的烟囱烟道水平穿过炕底，然后升到屋顶。这些炕大约三十英寸高，足够铺床，用十二英寸见方、四英寸厚的砖砌成，砖块由从田里挖来的粘土制成，揉成可塑状，与谷壳和短稻草混合，在阳光下晒干，然后倒入相同材料的砂浆中。因此，这些巨大的炕能够在白天吸收大量厨房的余热，白天为卧榻提供温暖，晚上为床铺和卧室提供温暖。在一些满族客栈中，大型的合炕是这样布置的：客人们头靠头睡成两排，仅用低矮的栏杆隔开，这样可以最大限度地节省燃料，让客人们可以坐在温暖的壁炉旁，晚上再铺床。
The intense individual economy, extending to the smallest matters, so universally practiced by these people, has sustained the massive strength of the Mongolian nations through their long history and this trait is seen in their handling of the fuel problem, as it is in all other lines. In the home of Mrs. Wu, owner and manager of a 25-acre rice farm in Chekiang province, there was a masonry kang seven by seven feet, about twenty-eight inches high, which could be warmed in winter by building a fire within. The top was fitted for mats to serve as couch by day and as a place upon which to spread the bed at night. In the Shantung province we visited the home of a prosperous farmer and here found two kangs in separate sleeping apartments, both warmed by the waste heat from the kitchen whose chimney flue passed horizontally under the kangs before rising through the roof. These kangs were wide enough to spread the beds upon, about thirty inches high, and had been constructed from brick twelve inches square and four inches thick, made from the clay subsoil taken from the fields and worked into a plastic mass, mixed with chaff; and short straw, dried in the sun and then laid in a mortar of the same material. These massive kangs are thus capable of absorbing large amounts of the waste heat from the kitchen during the day and of imparting congenial warmth to the couches by day and to the beds and sleeping apartments during the night. In some Manchurian inns large compound kangs are so arranged that the guests sleep heads together in double rows, separated only by low dividing rails, securing the greatest economy of fuel, providing the guests with places where they may sit upon the moderately warmed fireplace, and spread their beds when they retire.
图 73 身着冬装的江苏农村妇女。
Fig. 73.—A Kiangsu country woman in winter dress.
炕床的经济效益并不止于保暖。经过三四年的发酵和收缩，泥土和稻草砖会变得疏松透气，导致通风不良，产生令人不适的烟味，因此需要更换。然而，热量、发酵和燃烧产物的吸收共同作用，将相对贫瘠的底土转化为宝贵的肥料，而这些废弃的砖块则被用于制作田地的堆肥。正因为废弃砖块的这种价值，拆除和重建炕床所需的大量劳动力并不完全被视为浪费。
The economy of the chimney beds does not end with the warmth conserved. The earth and straw brick, through the processes of fermentation and through shrinkage, become open and porous after three or four years of service, so that the draft is defective, giving annoyance from smoke, which requires their renewal. But the heat, the fermentation and the absorption of products of combustion have together transformed the comparatively infertile subsoil into what they regard as a valuable fertilizer and these discarded brick are used in the preparation of compost fertilizers for the fields. On account of this value of the discarded brick the large amount of labor involved in removing and rebuilding the kangs is not regarded altogether as labor lost.
我们自己的观察表明，将土壤加热至 110°C 的干燥温度，可以大大提高植物养分的回收自由度水的溶解力会将它们分解，同样的加热无疑也会改善土壤的物理和生物条件。氮以氨的形式结合，磷、钾和石灰都会随着烟雾或煤烟被带走，在气流中机械地被气流带走，并被困在炕的内壁上，或随烟进入多孔砖，从而直接为土壤提供养分。研究发现，木炭烟灰平均含有1.36%的氮、0.51%的磷和5.34%的钾。我们大量焚烧稻草和玉米秸秆，以便轻松地将它们处理掉，结果却将宝贵的植物养分随风飘散，而这些养分却被人们辛勤而虔诚地保存下来，却被漫不经心地浪费掉了。这些养分是除了通过发酵形成硝酸盐、可溶性钾和其他植物养分之外的额外收获。我们在山东和直隶两省都看到过许多使用这些废弃砖块的例子，走在乡村的街道上，经常可以看到成堆的砖块，显然是最近才搬走的。
Our own observations have shown that heating soils to dryness at a temperature of 110° C. greatly increases the freedom with which plant food may be recovered from them by the solvent power of water, and the same heating doubtless improves the physical and biological conditions of the soil as well. Nitrogen combined as ammonia, and phosphorus, potash and lime are all carried with the smoke or soot, mechanically in the draft and arrested upon the inner walls of the kangs or filter into the porous brick with the smoke, and thus add plant food directly to the soil. Soot from wood has been found to contain, as an average, 1.36 per cent of nitrogen; .51 per cent of phosphorus and 5.34 per cent of potassium. We practice burning straw and corn stalks in enormous quantities, to get them easily out of the way, thus scattering on the winds valuable plant food, thoughtlessly and lazily wasting where these people laboriously and religiously save. These are gains in addition to those which result from the formation of nitrates, soluble potash and other plant foods through fermentation. We saw many instances where these discarded brick were being used, both in Shantung and Chihli provinces, and it was common in walking through the streets of country villages to see piles of them, evidently recently removed.
农场种植的燃料包括所有木质农作物的茎秆，除非它们有更好的用途。稻草、棉花种子收集后连根拔起的茎秆、温莎豆、油菜和小米的茎秆（均连根拔起）以及许多其他种类的茎秆，都被捆扎成捆运往市场，如图74、75和76所示。这些燃料用于家庭用途，用于燃烧石灰、砖块、屋瓦和陶器，也用于制造油、茶、豆腐和许多其他工艺。在家里，当使用这些轻质笨重的燃料做饭时，需要有人（通常是孩子）坐在地板上，一只手给火加料，另一只手拉风箱以确保足够的通风。
The fuel grown on the farms consists of the stems of all agricultural crops which are to any extent woody, unless they can be put to some better use. Rice straw, cotton stems pulled by the roots after the seed has been gathered, the stems of Windsor beans, those of rape and the millets, all pulled by the roots, and many other kinds, are brought to the market tied in bundles in the manner seen in Figs. 74, 75 and 76. These fuels are used for domestic purposes and for the burning of lime, brick, roofing tile and earthenware as well as in the manufacture of oil, tea, bean-curd and many other processes. In the home, when the meals are cooked with these light bulky fuels, it is the duty of some one, often one of the children, to sit on the floor and feed the fire with one hand while with the other a bellows is worked to secure sufficient draft.
图 74——上海苏州河上满载燃料的船只，主要是稻草和棉秆捆。
Fig. 74.—Boat loads of fuel, mainly bundles of rice straw and cotton stems, on Soochow creek, Shanghai.
棉籽油和棉籽饼的制造是中国常见的家庭手艺之一，在其中一户人家中，我们看到稻壳和稻草被用作燃料。在一栋用作商店、仓库、工厂和住宅的低矮的平房里，一家四代人正在劳作，祖父在磨坊里监督，祖母在家里和商店里领头，棉籽油的零售价为每磅22美分，棉籽饼的零售价为每英担33美分。在商店和客厅的后面，在磨坊的隔间里，三头蒙着眼睛的水牛，每头都在一台花岗岩磨坊里碾碎和研磨棉籽。另外三头水牛，用于接力服务，正在休息或吃东西，等待着轮到它们开始十小时的工作日。其中两台磨坊是直径超过四英尺的卧式花岗岩磨盘，奶牛每转一圈，上面的磨盘就旋转一圈。第三台磨坊由一对巨大的花岗岩滚筒组成，每个滚筒直径五英尺，厚两英尺，连接在一根很短的水平轴上，水牛每转一圈，滚筒就绕着一个圆形石板的垂直轴旋转一圈。两人负责这三台磨坊。棉籽经过两次磨坊后，需要蒸煮以使棉籽油更易榨出。蒸锅由两个带盖的木箍组成，与图77所示的类似，木箍底部有筛网。将棉粕放在木箍中，木箍上是一口沸水铁锅，铁锅的顶部有开口，蒸汽从开口处流过棉粕。每份棉粕都用一个放在竹秤臂上的量勺称重，以确保棉饼的重量均匀。
The manufacture of cotton seed oil and cotton seed cake is one of the common family industries in China, and in one of these homes we saw rice hulls and rice straw being used as fuel. In the large low, one-story, tile-roofed building serving as store, warehouse, factory and dwelling, a family of four generations were at work, the grandfather supervising in the mill and the grandmother leading in the home and store where the cotton seed oil was being retailed for 22 cents per pound and the cotton seed cake at 33 cents, gold, per hundredweight. Back of the store and living rooms, in the mill compartment, three blindfolded water buffalo, each working a granite mill, were crushing and grinding the cotton seed. Three other buffalo, for relay service, were lying at rest or eating, awaiting their turn at the ten-hour working day. Two of the mills were horizontal granite burrs more than four feet in diameter, the upper one revolving once with each circuit made by the cow. The third mill was a pair of massive granite rollers, each five feet in diameter and two feet thick, joined on a very short horizontal axle which revolved on a circular stone plate about a vertical axis once with each circuit of the buffalo. Two men tended the three mills. After the cotton seed had been twice passed through the mills it was steamed to render the oil fluid and more readily expressed. The steamer consisted of two covered wooden hoops not unlike that seen in Fig. 77, provided with screen bottoms, and in these the meal was placed over openings in the top of an iron kettle of boiling water from which the steam was forced through the charge of meal. Each charge was weighed in a scoop balanced on the arm of a bamboo scale, thus securing a uniform weight for the cakes.
图 75.—棉杆燃料从运河运送到城市市场摊位。
Fig. 75.—Cotton stem fuel being conveyed from the canals to city market stalls.
图 76.—稻草燃料从运河船运送到城市市场摊位。
Fig. 76.—Rice straw fuel being conveyed from canal boats to city market stalls.
图 77。日本使用的蒸茶叶器具，其原理与中国用于蒸茶叶以榨油的器具相同。
Fig. 77.—Appliance for steaming tea leaves, used in Japan and the same in principle as used in China for steaming meal from which oil is to be expressed.
炉子前的地上坐着一个男孩十二年来，他一直用左手以每分钟约三十次的速度将稻壳送入火中，同时用右手以完美的节奏来回拉动矩形风箱的长柱塞，为火提供强制通风。送燃料的人不时地向炉子里送入一捆稻草，这样就可以让男孩的左臂得到片刻的喘息。当蒸煮使油变得足够稀薄时，将热的稻壳转移到用竹编成的十英寸、两英寸深的圈中，操作者趁热用赤脚灵巧地踩踏，用一对扶手保持平衡。一堆十六个圈完成后，用少量的稻壳或短稻草将圈分开，然后将它们送到四个压榨工中的一位那里，压榨工忙着榨油。
On the ground in front of the furnace sat a boy of twelve years steadily feeding rice chaff into the fire with his left hand at the rate of about thirty charges per minute, while with his right hand, and in perfect rhythm, he drew back and forth the long plunger of a rectangular box bellows, maintaining a forced draft for the fire. At intervals the man who was bringing fuel fed into the furnace a bundle of rice straw, thus giving the boy’s left arm a moment’s respite. When the steaming has rendered the oil sufficiently fluid the meal is transferred, hot, to ten-inch hoops two inches deep, made of braided bamboo strands, and is deftly tramped with the bare feet, while hot, the operator steadying himself by a pair of hand bars. After a stack of sixteen hoops, divided by a slight sifting of chaff or short straw to separate the cakes, had been completed these were taken to one of four pressmen, who were kept busy in expressing the oil.
压榨机由两根平行的木料构成，木料的长度足以容纳竖立在木料之间空隙上方的十六个箍圈。这些粗粒玉米粉需要承受巨大的压力，这压力由三排平行的楔子固定，每排楔子都由一个铁质主楔压在从动楔上，主楔用一个重约二十五到三十磅的重型压实机压实。楔子排成一排，依次压紧，在拉回主楔后，松开的楔子会接上另一个楔子来弥补松弛部分，然后将主楔压实。为了保证楔子供应充足（楔子经常在压力下被压碎），一个比炉边的那个年龄更大的男孩在地板上工作，塑造新的楔子，破碎的楔子和碎屑则被送往炉子作为燃料。
The presses consisted of two parallel timbers framed together, long enough to receive the sixteen hoops on edge above a gap between them. These cheeses of meal are subjected to an enormous pressure secured by means of three parallel lines of wedges forced against the follower each by an iron-bound master wedge, driven home with a heavy beetle weighing some twenty-five or thirty pounds. The lines of wedges were tightened in succession, the loosened line receiving an additional wedge to take up the slack after drawing back the master wedge, which was then driven home. To keep good the supply of wedges which are often crushed under the pressure a second boy, older than the one at the furnace, was working on the floor, shaping new ones, the broken wedges and the chips going to the furnace for fuel.
这种非常简单、易于构建且价格低廉的装置能够确保巨大的压力。当操作者达到所需的压力后，他便点燃烟斗，坐下来抽烟，直到油不再滴入压榨机下方的凹坑。在此期间，下一批油饼会被送往另一台压榨机，这样白天的工作就得以继续。六百四十块蛋糕是这个有八名男子、两个男孩和六头水牛的家庭的平均每日产量。
By this very simple, readily constructed and inexpensive mechanism enormous pressures were secured and when the operator had obtained the desired compression he lighted his pipe and sat down to smoke until the oil ceased dripping into the pit sunk in the floor beneath the press. In this interval the next series of cakes went to another press and the work thus kept up during the day. Six hundred and forty cakes was the average daily output of this family of eight men and two boys, with their six water buffalo.
棉籽饼被当作饲料出售，附近的一位中国奶农用它们喂养他的40头水牛（如图78所示），这些水牛产出的牛奶供应上海的对外贸易。这40头奶牛，其中一头是白化病牛，平均每天产奶200斤，每头产奶6.23磅！这些奶牛的乳房非常小，但牛奶却非常浓稠，上海市卫生局办公室通过亚瑟·斯坦利医生的帮助进行的分析表明了这一点。牛奶的比重为1.028，含有20.1%的总固形物、7.5%的脂肪、4.2%的乳糖和0.8%的灰分。在南方长老会的WH·赫德森牧师家中我们曾在卡辛的教会（Mission）两次受到他热情的款待。我们家的餐桌上用的是两头奶牛的奶做的黄油，其中一头奶牛和它的小牛如图79所示。黄油颜色像猪油或棉油一样白，但质地和味道都很普通，比酒店里供应的丹麦和新西兰黄油好得多。
The cotton seed cakes were being sold as feed, and a near-by Chinese dairyman was using them for his herd of forty water buffalo, seen in Fig. 78, producing milk for the foreign trade in Shanghai. This herd of forty cows, one of which was an albino, was giving an average of but 200 catty of milk per day, or at the rate of six and two-thirds pounds per head! The cows have extremely small udders but the milk is very rich, as indicated by an analysis made in the office of the Shanghai Board of Health and obtained through the kindness of Dr. Arthur Stanley. The milk showed a specific gravity of 1.028 and contained 20.1 per cent total solids; 7.5 per cent fat; 4.2 per cent milk sugar and .8 per cent ash. In the family of Rev. W. H. Hudson, of the Southern Presbyterian Mission, Kashing, whose very gracious hospitality we enjoyed on two different occasions, the butter made from the milk of two of these cows, one of which, with her calf, is seen in Fig. 79, was used on the family table. It was as white as lard or cottolene but the texture and flavor were normal and far better than the Danish and New Zealand products served at the hotels.
图 78——一位中国农民拥有的一群奶水牛，他正在向上海的外国人供应牛奶。
Fig. 78.—A dairy herd of water buffalo owned by a Chinese farmer who was supplying milk to foreigners in Shanghai.
上海华人乳品厂生产的牛奶以每瓶两磅的价格出售，每瓶售价一美元，约合43美分。这个价格似乎有点高，我的翻译可能理解错了，但他回答我的问题时说，牛奶每瓶售价一上海元，每瓶一斤半，按照翻译过来，就是上面给出的价格。
The milk produced at the Chinese dairy in Shanghai was being sold in bottles holding two pounds, at the rate of one dollar a bottle, or 43 cents, gold. This seems high and there may have been misunderstanding on the part of my interpreter but his answer to my question was that the milk was being sold at one Shanghai dollar per bottle holding one and a half catty, which, interpreted, is the value given above.
图 79.中国浙江省嘉兴的水牛和小牛。
Fig. 79.—Water buffalo and calf, Kashing, Chekiang province, China.
然而，尽管实行了密集的经济政策，但从栽培植物茎秆中提取的燃料（虽然部分植物茎秆在其他方面也有用处）仍不足以满足乡村和村庄的需求。大片丘陵和山地被利用来贡献燃料，正如我们在中国南方看到的那样，那里人们使用松枝用于烧制石灰窑和水泥窑。在青岛，我们看到骡子驮着松枝燃料（图80），这些燃料来自山东省的山上。韩国也使用类似的燃料，我们在日本东京以东的船桥拍摄了大型松枝燃料堆的照片。
But fuel from the stems of cultivated plants which are in part otherwise useful, is not sufficient to meet the needs of country and village, notwithstanding the intense economies practiced. Large areas of hill and mountain land are made to contribute their share, as we have seen in the south of China, where pine boughs were being used for firing the lime and cement kilns. At Tsingtao we saw the pine bough fuel on the backs of mules, Fig. 80, coming from the hills in Shantung province. Similar fuels were being used in Korea and we have photographs of large pine bough fuel stacks, taken in Japan at Funabashi, east from Tokyo.
图 80——从中国山东山区运往青岛的松枝燃料。
Fig. 80.—Pine bough fuel coming into Tsingtao from the Shantung hills, China.
凡是通往人口稠密平原的丘陵地带，早已被砍伐殆尽。此外，造林也同样受到鼓励，甚至通过移植专门为此目的而种植的苗木来刻意保护。我们读过太多关于中国和日本肆意毁林的报道，却鲜少见到古树，除非它们被保护在寺庙、坟墓或房屋周围。因此，当苏州附近伊丽莎白·布莱克医院的RA·哈登牧师坚持认为中国人是刻意的林农，他们定期种树作为燃料，必要时移植它们以确保早期的密集生长，在清理完该区域后，我们非常惊讶，他慷慨地自愿陪同我们向西走两天，前往可以看到这种做法的山区。
The hill and mountain lands, wherever accessible to the densely peopled plains, have long been cut over and as regularly has afforestation been encouraged and deliberately secured even through the transplanting of nursery stock grown expressly for that purpose. We had read so much regarding the reckless destruction of forests in China and Japan and had seen so few old forest trees except where these had been protected about temples, graves or houses, that when Rev. R. A. Haden, of the Elizabeth Blake hospital, near Soochow, insisted that the Chinese were deliberate foresters and that they regularly grow trees for fuel, transplanting them when necessary to secure a close and early stand, after the area had been cleared, we were so much surprised that he generously volunteered to accompany us westward on a two days journey into the hill country where the practice could be seen.
一户拥有一艘船屋并居住在船上的家庭受雇参与这次旅程。这户人家由一位新近丧偶的父亲、他的两个新婚儿子和一名佣人组成。他们负责接送我们，并为我、哈登先生和一名厨师提供住宿，报酬是每天3美元（墨西哥币），并负责连夜赶路，白天则用于山上观察。
A family owning a houseboat and living upon it was engaged for the journey. This family consisted of a recently widowed father, his two sons, newly married, and a helper. They were to transport us and provide sleeping quarters for myself, Mr. Haden and a cook for the consideration of $3.00, Mexican, per day and to continue the journey through the night, leaving the day for observation in the hills.
父亲最近的葬礼花了100美元，两个儿子的婚礼各花了50美元，而为了满足新家庭成员的需求，重新装修船屋又花了100美元。为了支付这些费用，他不得不借了全部300美元。每借100美元，父亲要支付20%的利息；每借50美元，他又要支付50%的利息。剩余的钱是他从朋友那里借来的，没有利息，但约定好，如果需要的话，他会还钱。
The recent funeral had cost the father $100 and the wedding of the two sons $50 each, while the remodelling of the houseboat to meet the needs of the new family relations cost still another $100. To meet these expenses it had been necessary to borrow the full amount, $300. On $100 the father was paying 20 per cent interest; on $50 he was compelled to pay 50 per cent interest. The balance he had borrowed from friends without interest but with the understanding that he would return the favor should occasion be required.
埃文斯牧师告诉我们，在中国，邻里之间在经济困难时期互相帮助是一种常见的做法。其中一种方法是：一位邻居可能需要8000文钱。他准备了一场盛宴，并邀请了一百位朋友。尽管他们知道他家里没有人去世，也没有婚礼，但仍然明白他需要钱。盛宴的准备并不昂贵，受邀的客人每人都带来80文钱作为礼物。受邀者需要仔细记录朋友的捐款情况，并偿还这笔款项。另一种方法是：一个人出于某种原因需要借20000文钱。他向20位朋友提议，让他们组织一个俱乐部来筹集这笔款项。如果朋友们同意每人向组织成员支付1000现金。俱乐部的余额将抽签决定哪个成员将成为第二、三、四、五等号，以指定付款顺序。借款人有义务确保在约定的时间内全额偿还这些款项。通常会收取少量利息。
Rev. A. E. Evans informed us that it is a common practice in China for neighbors to help one another in times of great financial stress. This is one of the methods: A neighbor may need 8000 cash. He prepares a feast and sends invitations to a hundred friends. They know there has been no death in his family and that there is no wedding, still it is understood that he is in need of money. The feast is prepared at a small expense, the invited guests come, each bringing eighty cash as a present. The recipient is expected to keep a careful record of contributing friends and to repay the sum. Another method is like this: For some reason a man needs to borrow 20,000 cash. He proposes to twenty of his friends that they organize a club to raise this sum. If the friends agree each pays 1000 cash to the organizing member. The balance of the club draw lots as to which member shall be number two, three, four, five, etc., designating the order in which payments shall be made. The man borrowing the money is then under obligation to see that these payments are met in full at the times agreed upon. Not infrequently a small rate of interest is charged.
图 81——中国家庭用来在河流和运河上载客的住宅船。
Fig. 81.—Residence houseboat used by family for carrying passengers on rivers and canals, China.
中国的利率很高，尤其是在小额贷款上，因为担保品并不好。埃文斯先生告诉我，每月2%的利率很低，而每年30%的利率却很常见。这类债务通常无法偿还，但并不违法，而且可能会代代相传。
Rates of interest are very high in China, especially on small sums where securities are not the best. Mr. Evans informs me that two per cent per month is low and thirty per cent per annum is very commonly collected. Such obligations are often never met but they do not outlaw and may descend from father to son.
船费按美元计算为292.40美元；年收入为107.50美元至120.40美元。葬礼费用为43美元和43美元两个儿子的婚礼需要更多钱。他们六个人每天的服务费是1.29美元。如果能租两周或一个月，价格会低得多。以一年300天的服务计算，他们每天的平均收入加上120.40美元的总收入，只有40.13美分，每人不到7美分。因此，他们和我们一起的旅程是他们最值得庆祝的两天。在上海和其他城市的外国人经常会租用这种船屋服务，在运河和河流上进行为期两周或一个月的旅行，他们觉得这是一种既愉快又便宜的野餐方式。
The boat cost $292.40 in U. S. currency; the yearly earning was $107.50 to $120.40. The funeral cost $43 and $43 more was required for the wedding of the two sons. They were receiving for the services of six people $1.29 per day. An engagement for two weeks or a month could have been made for materially lower rates and their average daily earning, on the basis of three hundred days service in the year, and the $120.40 total earning, would be only 40.13 cents, less than seven cents each, hence their trip with us was two of their banner days. Foreigners in Shanghai and other cities frequently engage such houseboat service for two weeks or a month of travel on the canals and rivers, finding it a very enjoyable as well as inexpensive way of having a picnic outing.
图 82. 中国苏州以西陡峭山坡上的狭长地带森林砍伐。
Fig. 82.—Forest cutting in narrow strips on steep hillsides west of Soochow, China.
第二天早上到达山地时，看到的景象如图82所示，树龄从两年到十年不等的树带沿着山坡一直延伸，由于笔直的边界和不同树龄的树木，形成了强烈的对比。一些这些狭长的土地，宽度不足两杆，其中一处最近才被砍伐，我们沿着它走了很长一段路，那里的松树幼苗正在大量生长。在三十英尺宽的地带，六英尺宽的地方，我们数了一下，有十八棵幼树。这片区域的所有树木最近都被砍伐殆尽。甚至连树桩和粗大的树根也被挖出来留作燃料。
On reaching the hill lands the next morning there were such scenes as shown in Fig. 82, where the strips of tree growth, varying from two to ten years, stretched directly up the slope, often in strong contrast on account of the straight boundaries and different ages of the timber. Some of these long narrow holdings were less than two rods wide and on one of these only recently cut, up which we walked for considerable distance, the young pine were springing up in goodly numbers. As many as eighteen young trees were counted on a width of six feet across the strip of thirty feet wide. On this area everything had been recently cut clean. Even stumps and the large roots were dug and saved for fuel.
图 83. 在中国江苏苏州西部的山地上收集的松树枝和橡树枝燃料捆。
Fig. 83.—Bundles of pine and oak bough fuel gathered on the hill lands west of Soochow, Kiangsu, China.
图83中可以看到刚从这条小路运进村里的一捆捆燃料，虽然燃料已经干了，但树枝上还留着叶子。树根也和树枝绑在一起，这样就把所有东西都保存下来了。在我们走向山坡的路上，我们遇到许多人，他们用扁担扛着燃料。
In Fig. 83 are seen bundles of fuel from such a strip, just brought into the village, the boughs retaining the leaves although the fuel had been dried. The roots, too, are tied in with the limbs so that everything is saved. On our walk to the hills we passed many people bringing their loads of fuel swinging from carrying poles on their shoulders.
关于这些山坡带的造林情况的调查显示，树根的恢复通常会导致新树迅速从散落的种子和根部自发生长出来，因此通常不需要种植。我们和一群人讨论在哪里可以看到一些用于重新种植山坡的树木，一个七岁的男孩首先明白了这一点，并自愿带我们去种植。他照做了，并因收到一些小钱而欣喜若狂。图84中显示的是其中一个这样的小松树苗圃，许多树苗被种植在树林中合适的地方。这个男孩带我们去了两个这样的地点，尽管它们离小路很远，也离家很远，但他显然对它们的位置非常熟悉。这些小树被用来填充自生植物生长不够密集的地方。在这些新开垦的土地上，通常会迅速长出茂盛的草本植物，它们也会被砍伐用作燃料、制作堆肥或用作绿肥。
Inquiries regarding the afforestation of these strips of hillside showed that the extensive digging necessitated by the recovery of the roots usually caused new trees to spring up quickly as volunteers from scattered seed and from the roots, so that planting was not generally required. Talking with a group of people as to where we could see some of the trees used for replanting the hillsides, a lad of seven years was first to understand and volunteered to conduct us to a planting. This he did and was overjoyed on receipt of a trifle for his services. One of these little pine nurseries is seen in Fig. 84, many being planted in suitable places through the woods. The lad led us to two such locations with whose whereabouts he was evidently very familiar, although they were considerable distance from the path and far from home. These small trees are used in filling in places where the volunteer growth has not been sufficiently close. A strong herbaceous growth usually springs up quickly on these newly cleared lands and this too is cut for fuel or for use in making compost or as green manure.
图 84、在阴凉的树林中，蕨类植物中间生长着小松树的微型苗圃，用于重新种植被砍伐的山坡树木。
Fig. 84.—Tiny nursery of small pines growing among ferns in a shady wood, for replanting cut-over hillsides.
墓地上生长的草，如果不用来喂食，也会被割下来留作燃料。我们在上海郊外见过好几例这样的事。其中一例是一位母亲带着她的女儿，带着耙子、镰刀、篮子和袋子，从墓地里收集上一季的干枯草茬和草，因为墓地里的草比我们修剪得很整齐的草地少得多。图85中可以看到一个男人刚带着一堆草回来，手里拿着一把典型的远东耙子，是用竹条简单地弯成爪形，然后像版画中那样固定起来制成的。
The grass which grows on the grave lands, if not fed off, is also cut and saved for fuel. We saw several instances of this outside of Shanghai, one where a mother with her daughter, provided with rake, sickle, basket and bag, were gathering the dry stubble and grass of the previous season, from the grave lands where there was less than could be found on our closely mowed meadows. In Fig. 85 may be seen a man who has just returned with such a load, and in his hand is the typical rake of the Far East, made by simply bending bamboo splints, claw-shape, and securing them as seen in the engraving.
图 85、上海墓地上收集的干草燃料。
Fig. 85.—Dried grass fuel gathered on grave lands, Shanghai.
在山东省、直隶和满洲，小米，尤其是高粱或高粱的茎秆，被广泛用作燃料和建筑材料，以及制作屏风、栅栏和席子。在奉天，高粱作为燃料在墨西哥的售价为每 100 捆重七斤的高粱秸秆 2.70 到 3.00 美元。每英亩高粱燃料的产量为 5600 磅，秸秆长 8 到 12 英尺，因此当用骡子或马驮着时，动物几乎被负载遮住。在中国和日本的不同地区，农作物植物茎杆燃料的价格为每吨 1.30 到 2.85 美元不等。南京无烟煤的价格为每吨 7.76 美元。以每绳 3500 磅干橡木计算，同等重量的植物茎杆燃料售价为 2.28 到 5.00 美元。
In the Shantung province, in Chihli and in Manchuria, millet stems, especially those of the great kaoliang or sorghum, are extensively used for fuel and for building as well as for screens, fences and matting. At Mukden the kaoliang was selling as fuel at $2.70 to $3.00, Mexican, for a 100-bundle load of stalks, weighing seven catty to the bundle. The yield per acre of kaoliang fuel amounts to 5600 pounds and the stalks are eight to twelve feet long, so that when carried on the backs of mules or horses the animals are nearly hidden by the load. The price paid for plant stem fuel from agricultural crops, in different parts of China and Japan, ranged from $1.30 to $2.85, U. S. currency, per ton. The price of anthracite coal at Nanking was $7.76 per ton. Taking the weight of dry oak wood at 3500 pounds per cord, the plant stem fuel, for equal weight, was selling at $2.28 to $5.00.
图 86. 一捆捆高粱燃料流入顺通胶州市场。
Fig. 86.—Bundles of kaoliang fuel coming into Kiaochow market, Shuntung.
这些国家将大量木材制成木炭，然后将其打包成粗毡送往市场或者用小灌木丛编织的筐子，可以装两到两蒲式耳的木料。如果这些木材没有被制成木炭，就会被锯成一到两英尺长，劈开后捆成捆出售，如图77所示。
Large amounts of wood are converted into charcoal in these countries and sent to market baled in rough matting or in basketwork cases woven from small brush and holding two to two and a half bushels. When such wood is not converted into charcoal it is sawed into one or two-foot lengths, split and marketed tied in bundles, as seen in Fig. 77.
在满洲，沿着奉天-安东铁路，燃料也以四英尺长的形式运输，形式为木柴。在朝鲜，牛会配备一种特殊的鞍具，用来驮木柴，木柴用四英尺长的木棍像毯子一样盖在牛身上，木棍向牛身两侧延伸很远。就这样，木柴从山上运到火车站。和满洲一样，这些木柴取自小树。在朝鲜，就像我们访问过的中国大部分地区一样，山上的树木通常散落稀疏，在非个体小块土地上生长。在零星散落的松树下和松树之间，经常会长出橡树，但这些橡树总是很小，显然树龄不超过两三年，而且似乎被反复砍伐过。正是在朝鲜，我们看到许多橡树幼枝被运到稻田用作绿肥。
Along the Mukden-Antung railway in Manchuria fuel was also being shipped in four-foot lengths, in the form of cordwood. In Korea cattle were provided with a peculiar saddle for carrying wood in four-foot sticks laid blanket-fashion over the animal, extending far down on their sides. Thus was it brought from the hills to the railway station. This wood, as in Manchuria, was cut from small trees. In Korea, as in most parts of China where we visited, the tree growth over the hills was generally scattering and thin on the ground wherever there was not individual ownership in small holdings. Under and among the scattering pine there were oak in many cases, but these were always small, evidently not more than two or three years standing, and appearing to have been repeatedly cut back. It was in Korea that we saw so many instances of young leafy oak boughs brought to the rice fields and used as green manure.
有大量证据表明，在满洲的奉天和安东之间、朝鲜的威州和扶山之间，以及我们在日本的大部分旅程中，从长崎到门司，从下关到横滨，都存在着周期性砍伐的现象。在所有这些国家，植树造林都进展迅速，私人林地的砍伐频率通常为每10年、20年或25年一次。木材出售给伐木工人时，伐木工人以每匹马驮40斤（330磅）的价格支付40钱，如图87所示。明石实验站站长小野告诉我们，在该县，这种燃料载量为10年，木材每10年砍伐一次，10年收成的收益约为每英亩40美元。这片土地的价值为每英亩40美元，但如果适合种植橘子树，每英亩的售价可达600美元。在……下，蘑菇栽培被广泛采用。其中一些林区的树荫下，在有利条件下可产生每英亩 100 美元的收益。
There was abundant evidence of periodic cutting between Mukden and Antung in Manchuria; between Wiju and Fusan in Korea; and throughout most of our journey in Japan; from Nagasaki to Moji and from Shimonoseki to Yokohama. In all of these countries afforestation takes place quickly and the cuttings on private holdings are made once in ten, twenty or twenty-five years. When the wood is sold to those coming for it the takers pay at the rate of 40 sen per one horse load of forty kan, or 330 pounds, such as is seen in Fig. 87. Director Ono, of the Akashi Experiment station, informed us that such fuel loads in that prefecture, where the wood is cut once in ten years, bring returns amounting to about $40 per acre for the ten-year crop. This land was worth $40 per acre but when they are suitable for orange groves they sell for $600 per acre. Mushroom culture is extensively practiced under the shade of some of these wooded areas, yielding under favorable conditions at the rate of $100 per acre.
日本的森林覆盖面积（不包括台湾和库页岛）总计 54,196,728 英亩，其中不到 2000 万英亩为私人所有，其余属于国家和皇室所有。
The forest covered area in Japan exclusive of Formosa and Karafuto, amounts to a total of 54,196,728 acres, less than twenty millions of which are in private holdings, the balance belonging to the state and to the Imperial Crown.
在所有这些国家，除了木材之外，其他建筑材料都得到了广泛的使用，其中很多木材替代品都是农田里种植的木材。如图8所示的箱根村，人们用稻草做屋顶，这种做法在水稻种植区非常普遍。甚至房屋的侧面也用茅草覆盖，就像在广州三角洲地区观察到的那样，这种建筑冬暖夏凉。然而，这些茅草屋顶的寿命很短，每三到五年就必须更换一次，但旧稻草非常珍贵，可用作生长它的田地的肥料，或用作燃料，灰烬则只用于田地。
In all of these countries there has been an extensive general use of materials other than wood for building purposes and very many of the substitutes for lumber are products grown on the cultivated fields. The use of rice straw for roofing, as seen in the Hakone village, Fig. 8, is very general throughout the rice growing districts, and even the sides of houses may be similarly thatched, as was observed in the Canton delta region, such a construction being warm for winter and cool for summer. The life of these thatched roofs, however, is short and they must be renewed as often as every three to five years but the old straw is highly prized as fertilizer for the fields on which it is grown, or it may serve as fuel, the ashes only going to the fields.
图 87.日本燃料从树木繁茂的山丘上下来。
Fig. 87.—Japanese fuel coming down from the wooded hills.
烧制粘土瓦，尤其用于城市和公共建筑的屋顶，因为粘土资源丰富且近在咫尺。在直隶和满洲，大城市以外的许多民居的屋顶都使用小米和高粱秆，单独使用或涂抹（如图88所示）泥浆，有时还会混合石灰。
Burned clay tile, especially for the cities and public buildings, are very extensively used for roofing, clay being abundant and near at hand. In Chihli and in Manchuria millet and sorghum stems, used alone or plastered, as in Fig. 88, with a mud mortar, sometimes mixed with lime, cover the roofs of vast numbers of the dwellings outside the larger cities.
图 88、用泥土抹平的小米茅草屋顶；泥烟囱；用泥土抹平的房屋墙壁，以及用粘土和谷壳砂浆建造的蔬菜冬季储藏坑。
Fig. 88.—Millet-thatched roofs plastered with earth; mud chimneys; walls of houses plastered with mud, and winter storage pits for vegetables built of clay and chaff mortar.
在满洲的桥头，我们目睹了用小米茅草搭建屋顶的场景，以及高粱茎作为木材的使用。椽子按常规方式搭设，上面覆盖一层约两英寸厚的长高粱茎，去掉叶子和顶端。用麻绳将高粱茎捆扎在一起，并固定在椽子上，形成一种席子。然后，在表面铺上一层薄薄的粘土砂浆，并用抹刀抹平，直到砂浆从背面露出来。再铺上一层用小米茎捆扎成八英寸厚的茅草，切成茅草屋顶的根部呈正方形，长度可达18英寸。它们被浸入水中，并像木瓦一样铺设成层层结构，但屋顶根部的前端被推向斜坡，使路肩消失，使层层结构不可见。在条件较好的房屋中，这种茅草屋顶可以用土砂浆或土石灰砂浆抹面，因为这些砂浆不易被大雨冲刷。
At Chiao Tou in Manchuria we saw the building of the thatched millet roofs and the use of kaoliang stems as lumber. Rafters were set in the usual way and covered with a layer about two inches thick of the long kaoliang stems stripped of their leaves and tops. These were tied together and to the rafters with twine, thus forming a sort of matting. A layer of thin clay mortar was then spread over the surface and well trowelled until it began to show on the under side. Over this was applied a thatch of small millet stems bound in bundles eight inches thick, cut square across the butts to eighteen inches in length. They were dipped in water and laid in courses after the manner of shingles but the butts of the stems are driven forward to a slope which obliterates the shoulder, making the courses invisible. In the better houses this thatching may be plastered with earth mortar or with an earth-lime mortar, which is less liable to wash in heavy rain.
图 89。用于建造房屋的风干土砖。
Fig. 89.—Air-dried earth brick for house building.
我们看到的房屋墙壁也用又长又粗的高粱秆砌成。一个普通的框架，柱子和墙梁间隔约三英尺，立在窗台上，用板子支撑屋顶。高粱秆垂直地靠在墙梁上，并绑在墙梁上，形成一层紧密的层。这些高粱秆的内外都抹上了一层薄薄的泥灰。墙梁内侧也竖立了一层类似的高粱秆，也同样抹上了泥灰，构成了房屋墙壁的内表面，墙梁之间留出了空隙。
The walls of the house we saw building were also sided with the long, large kaoliang stems. An ordinary frame with posts and girts about three feet apart had been erected, on sills and with plates carrying the roof. Standing vertically against the girts and tied to them, forming a close layer, were the kaoliang stems. These were plastered outside and in with a layer of thin earth mortar. A similar layer of stems, set up on the inside of the girts and similarly plastered, formed the inner face of the wall of the house, leaving dead air spaces between the girts.
土砖在房屋建造中应用非常广泛，谷壳和短稻草被用作粘合材料，砖块只需在阳光下晒干即可，如图89所示。图90显示的是正在建造中的一栋房屋，其中使用了这种砖。可以看到，房屋的地基是用成型良好的烧砖砌成的，这些砖块可以防止地面的毛细水分被吸收，使土砖变软，从而降低墙体的安全性。
Brick made from earth are very extensively used for house building, chaff and short straw being used as a binding material, the brick being simply dried in the sun, as seen in Fig. 89. A house in the process of building, where the brick were being used, is seen in Fig. 90. The foundation of the dwelling, it will be observed, was laid with well-formed hard-burned brick, these being necessary to prevent capillary moisture from the ground being drawn up and soften the earth brick, making the wall unsafe.
图 90——住宅地基由烧砖构成；墙壁其余部分由晒干的土砖构成，如图 89 所示。
Fig. 90.—Foundation of dwelling, consisting of hard-burned brick; balance of wall to be sun-dried earth brick, seen in Fig. 89.
在我们沿北河而上的旅途中，我们经过了几座用黏土和泥土建造的烧砖窑，窑周围堆放着一捆捆高粱秆，占地八百多英尺，距离河流八百多英尺，用作窑炉的燃料。
Several kilns for burning brick, built of clay and earth, were passed in our journey up the Pei ho, and stacked about them, covering an area of more than eight hundred feet back from the river, were bundles of the kaoliang stems to serve as fuel in the kilns.
由于燃料的匮乏，大量使用免烧砖成为必然。为了减少建筑所需的烧砖数量，人们采用了各种方法。图79展示了其中一种装置，环绕卡辛城墙的四层烧砖交替砌筑，中间用简单的土质混凝土隔开。
The extensive use of the unburned brick is necessitated by the difficulty of obtaining fuel, and various methods are adopted to reduce the number of burned brick required in construction. One of these devices is shown in Fig. 79, where the city wall surrounding Kashing is constructed of alternate courses of four layers of burned brick separated by layers of simple earth concrete.
除了用于粮食、燃料和建筑材料的多功能农作物外，还有大片土地用于种植纺织品和纤维产品，每年产量巨大。在日本，大约五千万人主要依靠略多于21000平方英里的耕地产出的食物，而1906年，该国种植了超过7550万磅的棉花、大麻、亚麻和中国草纺织原料，占耕地面积的76700英亩。另有141000英亩的耕地种植了11500万磅的构树和三桠木，这些是造纸的原料。另外，从14000英亩土地上砍伐了9200万磅席子，超过95.7万英亩的土地被用作桑树的饲养地，为日本提供了2238万9798磅丝绸。从1860平方英里的耕地上砍伐了超过3亿磅纤维和纺织品，使粮食生产面积减少到957.1英亩。19,263平方英里，其中123,000英亩用于种茶，面积更小。1906年，这些茶叶产出58,900,000磅，价值近500万美元。这些数字并未完全体现21,321平方英里耕地的生产能力，因为除了上述提到的食物和其他原料外，还用稻草和木屑制作了价值2,365,000美元的编织物；价值6,000,000美元的稻草袋、包装箱和席子；以及价值1,085,000美元的竹子、柳条和藤蔓制品。为了说明这些人的家庭手工业多么发达，我们可以看看这个事实：1906年，日本5,453,309户农民在家中以辅助劳动的方式生产了价值20,527,000美元的制成品。如果中国和韩国有相应准确的统计数据，那么就会发现那里的文化潜力同样得到了充分利用。
In addition to the multiple-function, farm-grown crops used for food, fuel and building material, there is a large acreage devoted to the growing of textile and fiber products and enormous quantities of these are produced annually. In Japan, where some fifty millions of people are chiefly fed on the produce of little more than 21,000 square miles of cultivated land, there was grown in 1906 more than 75,500,000 pounds of cotton, hemp, flax and China grass textile stock, occupying 76,700 acres of the cultivated land. On 141,000 other acres there grew 115,000,000 pounds of paper mulberry and Mitsumata, materials used in the manufacture of paper. From still another 14,000 acres were taken 92,000,000 pounds of matting stuff, while more than 957,000 acres were occupied by mulberry trees for the feeding of silkworms, yielding to Japan 22,389,798 pounds of silk. Here are more than 300,000,000 pounds of fiber and textile stuff taken from 1860 square miles of the cultivated land, cutting down the food producing area to 957,1 19,263 square miles and this area is made still smaller by devoting 123,000 acres to tea, these producing in 1906 58,900,000 pounds, worth nearly five million dollars. Nor do these statements express the full measure of the producing power of the 21,321 square miles of cultivated land, for, in addition to the food and other materials named, there were also made $2,365,000 worth of braid from straw and wood shavings; $6,000,000 worth of rice straw bags, packing cases and matting; and $1,085,000 worth of wares from bamboo, willow and vine. As illustrating the intense home industry of these people we may consider the fact that the 5,453,309 households of farmers in Japan produced in 1906, in their homes as subsidiary work, $20,527,000 worth of manufactured articles. If correspondingly exact statistical data were available from China and Korea a similarly full utilization of cultural possibilities would be revealed there.
图 91、北河岸边的土窑和粘土砖窑，使用高粱秸秆作为燃料。
Fig. 91.—Earth and clay brick kiln on the bank of the Pei ho, using sorghum stems for fuel.
勤俭节约的优良传统，孕育于数个世纪的压力之下，绝不能让其因接触西方的浪费行为而失去活力。如今，西方的浪费行为凭借着机械成就的耀眼光芒，被提升为看似美德的典范。劳动必须在所有家庭中越来越受到尊重，勤俭节约成为令人信服、令人满足的传承动力。
This marvelous heritage of economy, industry and thrift, bred of the stress of centuries, must not be permitted to lose virility through contact with western wasteful practices, now exalted to seeming virtues through the dazzling brilliancy of mechanical achievements. More and more must labor be dignified in all homes alike, and economy, industry and thrift become inherited impulses compelling and satisfying.
这些国家早已发展起来的廉价、快速、长距离交通运输，将更充分地利用其丰富的煤炭和矿产资源以及巨大的可用水力资源，从而暂时缓解燃料短缺，并通过更好的森林管理，减轻建筑材料短缺的压力。但距离我们不到一个世纪，全世界必将沿着这些影响深远、根基深厚的实践方式，实现更全面、更完善的发展。这些实践已被中国、朝鲜和日本的蒙古族长期有效地遵循。当这些国家丰富的水力资源得到开发，并被引入山麓地带时，并以电流的形式流经山谷和平原的边缘，如果可能的话，让它大规模地分布，以便进入乡村家庭，减轻负担，减少人类的苦差事，同时提高人类努力的效率，这些努力现在在家庭的指导和主动性下很好地分配给了辅助制造业，在那里，孩子们可以有呼吸的空间，并在尽可能最好的条件下成长为男人和女人，而不是在巨大拥挤的工厂里。
Cheap, rapid, long distance transportation, already well started in these countries, will bring with it a fuller utilization of the large stores of coal and mineral wealth and of the enormous available water power, and as a result there will come some temporary lessening of the stress for fuel and with better forest management some relief along the lines of building materials. But the time is not a century distant when, throughout the world, a fuller, better development must take place along the lines of these most far-reaching and fundamental practices so long and so effectively followed by the Mongolian races in China, Korea and Japan. When the enormous water-power of these countries has been harnessed and brought into the foot-hills and down upon the margins of the valleys and plains in the form of electric current, let it, if possible, be in a large measure so distributed as to become available in the country village homes to lighten the burden and lessen the human drudgery and yet increase the efficiency of the human effort now so well bestowed upon subsidiary manufactures under the guidance and initiative of the home, where there may be room to breathe and for children to come up to manhood and womanhood in the best conditions possible, rather than in enormous congested factories.
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3月31日早上8点，我们乘坐沪宁铁路的火车前往位于上海以西32英里的昆山，打算在田野里漫步一整天。二等车厢票价80美分（墨西哥货币）。三等车厢票价40美分，一等车厢票价1.60美元，相当于每英里2美分，相当于我们当地的货币1.5美分。去往南京的二等车厢票价为1.72美元（美元），路程193英里，相当于每英里略低于1美分。虽然车厢座椅没有软垫，但服务不错。火车上供应中西餐，还提供茶、咖啡和热水。车上经常有人递上热湿毛巾，还出售许多中文日报，旅客经常会买两份。
On March 31st we took the 8 A. M. train on the Shanghai-Nanking railway for Kunshan, situated thirty-two miles west from Shanghai, to spend the day walking in the fields. The fare, second class, was eighty cents, Mexican. A third class ticket would have been forty cents and a first class, $1.60, practically two cents, one cent and half a cent, our currency, per mile. The second class fare to Nanking, a distance of 193 miles, was $1.72, U. S. currency, or a little less than one cent per mile. While the car seats were not upholstered, the service was good. Meals were served on the train in either foreign or Chinese style, and tea, coffee or hot water to drink. Hot, wet face cloths were regularly passed and many Chinese daily newspapers were sold on the train, a traveler often buying two.
在昆山附近，法国天主教传教团以每亩40墨西哥元（约合每英亩103.20美元）的价格购得了一大片农田，并将其出租给中国人。
In the vicinity of Kunshan a large area of farm land had been acquired by the French catholic mission at a purchase price of $40, Mexican, per mow, or at the rate of $103.20 per acre. This they rented to the Chinese.
正是在这里，我们第一次近距离地看到了在中国广泛使用的利用运河淤泥施肥的细节。穿过田野，我们看到了图92中部的场景，在靠近右侧的地方有一个类似于图58所示的蓄水池。人们在池子里，把池底积聚的淤泥挖出来，倒在一块种植着温莎豆的田地里的岸边。稀薄的淤泥在那一侧有两英尺深，流入已经长出两根杆子的豆子里，正如版画所示，将豆子埋了起来。等淤泥干到可以方便处理的时候，人们就会像我们在另一块田里看到的那样，把淤泥撒在豆子里，就像图画上半部分显示的那样。这里有四个人，他们把干了的淤泥撒在田垄之间，不是为了给豆子施肥，而是为了在豆子收割之前，在田垄之间种植下一茬棉花。我们与这块地的主人交谈，他负责监督这项工作，他说他通常每亩地能产出三百斤豆子，去壳的豆子通常以每斤两美分（墨西哥币）的价格出售。按照这样的价格和产量，他的回报是每英亩15.48美元（黄金）。如果土壤需要氮和有机质，那么采摘豆子后，就把豆藤拔掉，用湿泥堆肥。如果土壤不需要，就把干茎捆成捆，作为燃料出售或自用，灰烬则归还田地。因此，温莎豆是一种早熟作物，可以用作肥料、燃料和食物。
It was here that we first saw, at close range, the details of using canal mud as a fertilizer, so extensively applied in China. Walking through the fields we came upon the scene in the middle section of Fig. 92 where, close on the right was such a reservoir as seen in Fig. 58. Men were in it, dipping up the mud which had accumulated over its bottom, pouring it on the bank in a field of Windsor beans, and the thin mud was then over two feet deep at that side and flowing into the beans where it had already spread two rods, burying the plants as the engraving shows. When sufficiently dry to be readily handled this would be spread among the beans as we found it being done in another field, shown in the upper section of the illustration. Here four men were distributing such mud, which had dried, between the rows, not to fertilize the beans, but for a succeeding crop of cotton soon to be planted between the rows, before they were harvested. The owner of this piece of land, with whom we talked and who was superintending the work, stated that his usual yield of these beans was three hundred catty per mow and that they sold them green, shelled, at two cents, Mexican, per catty. At this price and yield his return would be $15.48, gold, per acre. If there was need of nitrogen and organic matter in the soil the vines would be pulled green, after picking the beans, and composted with the wet mud. If not so needed the dried stems would be tied in bundles and sold as fuel or used at home, the ashes being returned to the fields. The Windsor beans are thus an early crop grown for fertilizer, fuel and food.
图92——在下方区域，沿着小路，一筐筐的运河淤泥被铺成两排，每英亩超过100吨。在中间区域，最右边的工人们正在从图58所示的蓄水池中清除淤泥。上方区域显示三个工人正在将运河淤泥撒在一片温莎豆田的行间。
Fig. 92.—In the lower section, along the path, basketsful of canal mud had been applied in two rows at the rate of more than 100 tons per acre. In the middle section workmen just beyond the extreme right were removing mud from such a reservoir as is seen in Fig. 58. The upper section shows three men distributing canal mud between the rows of a field of Windsor beans.
这位农民每天付给工人一百文钱，并为他们提供餐食，据他估计，餐食价值两百文钱，每天工作十小时，总价值十二美分黄金。根据我们所见的情况以及每车运送的泥土量，我们估计这些工人每天运送的泥土不少于八十四车，每车八十磅，平均距离五百英尺，因此每吨运送成本为3.57美分黄金。
This farmer was paying his laborers one hundred cash per day and providing their meals, which he estimated worth two hundred cash more, making twelve cents, gold, for a ten-hour day. Judging from what we saw and from the amount of mud carried per load, we estimated the men would distribute not less than eighty-four loads of eighty pounds each per day, an average distance of five hundred feet, making the cost 3.57 cents, gold, per ton for distribution.
图92的下方展示了另一个例子，当时我们沿着小路边上的一条狭长地带正在使用泥土。照片拍摄当天上午10点之前，一个人把泥土运到了400多英尺远的地方。他从一条10英尺深的运河底部运泥土，退潮后，运河露出了水面。他已经把一吨多的泥土运到了他的田里。
The lower section of Fig. 92 shows another instance where mud was being used on a narrow strip bordering the path along which we walked, the amount there seen having been brought more than four hundred feet, by one man before 10 A. M. on the morning the photograph was taken. He was getting it from the bottom of a canal ten feet deep, laid bare by the out-going tide. Already he had brought more than a ton to his field.
用于这项工作的搬运筐是巨大的簸箕形，用两根系在侧边的绳子悬挂在扁担上，用手抓住筐后方的把手来保持稳定，以便倾倒筐子清空。有了这种结构，泥土很容易耙到筐上，到达目的地后只需抬起手就能轻松清空。对于这位拥有小块土地的人来说，没有比这更简单、快捷、更便宜的安排了。在挖掘数英里的运河和修建长长的海堤时，几乎所有的泥土都是用这种简单的方式搬运的。在上海，我们看到，在退潮期间，通过雨水管道流入苏州河的泥浆也被以同样的方式清理掉。
The carrying baskets used for this work were in the form of huge dustpans suspended from the carrying poles by two cords attached to the side rims, and steadied by the hand grasping a handle provided in the back for this purpose and for emptying the baskets by tipping. With this construction the earth was readily raked upon the basket and very easily emptied from it by simply raising the hands when the destination was reached. No arrangement could be more simple, expeditious or inexpensive for this man with his small holding. In this simple manner has nearly all of the earth been moved in digging the miles of canal and in building the long sea walls. In Shanghai the mud carried through the storm sewers into Soochow creek we saw being removed in the same manner during the intervals when the tide was out.
如图93所示，在另一块田地中，上半部分显示了每英亩土地上施用了超过70吨的渠泥。我们被告知，这种施肥可以每两年重复一次，但如果能找到其他更便宜的肥料，通常间隔时间会更长。在同一幅图的下半部分，我们可以看到渠段，这些渠泥被收集起来，沿着三道用渠泥建造的土梯向上，待其干燥后再使用。在我们沿着渠段的考察中，我们看到了许多这样的土梯，它们要么是最近才修建的，要么正在修建中，以便在需要施肥时随时使用。为了方便收集浅渠中的淤泥，可以在两处筑起临时水坝，然后将中间的水舀出或抽出，使河底裸露，就像人们经常用来捕鱼一样。在版画上半部分中央背景中，渠对面的大型墓冢的土也是用类似的方式收集的。
In still another field, seen in Fig. 93, the upper portion shows where canal mud had been applied at a rate exceeding seventy tons per acre, and we were told that such dressings may be repeated as often as every two years though usually at longer intervals, if other and cheaper fertilizers could be obtained. In the lower portion of the same illustration may be seen the section of canal from which this mud was taken up the three earthen stairways built of the mud itself and permitted to dry before using. Many such lines of stairway were seen during our trips along the canals, only recently made or in the process of building to be in readiness when the time for applying the mud should arrive. To facilitate collecting the mud from the shallow canals temporary dams may be thrown across them at two places and the water between either scooped or pumped out, laying the bottom bare, as is often done also for fishing. The earth of the large grave mound seen across a canal in the center background of the upper portion of the engraving had been collected in a similar manner.
在浙江省，运河淤泥被广泛用于桑园的地表覆土。我们之前提到过中国南方的这种做法，图94是四月初在嘉兴以南拍摄的景象。船桑园前停泊着一户人家，他们从远方而来，在桑蚕采摘的季节里寻找工作。我们关上相机，回头看向船，惊讶地发现，这家人的主人正笔直地站在船中央，掀开了一块篷布。
In the Chekiang province canal mud is extensively used in the mulberry orchards as a surface dressing. We have referred to this practice in southern China, and Fig. 94 is a view taken south of Kashing early in April. The boat anchored in front of the mulberry orchard is the home of a family coming from a distance, seeking employment during the season for picking mulberry leaves to feed silkworms. We were much surprised, on looking back at the boat after closing the camera, to see the head of the family standing erect in the center, having shoved back a section of the matting roof.
图 93——田地里堆满了运河淤泥，最近每英亩淤泥用量超过 70 吨；淤泥从运河中取出，沿着图中下部所示的三段土阶向上移动。
Fig. 93.—Section of field covered with piles of canal mud recently applied at the rate of more than 70 tons per acre; taken out of the canal up the three flights of earth steps shown in the lower part of the figure.
施用于这块田地的泥土形成了一层超过两英寸厚的松散层，随后的雨水将泥土压实，使整个果园的土壤厚度增加不少于一英寸，每英亩的重量不会少于 120 吨。
The dressing of mud applied to this field formed a loose layer more than two inches deep and when compacted by the rains which would follow would add not less than a full inch of soil over the entire orchard, and the weight per acre could not be less than 120 tons.
图94：桑园里铺满了厚厚的运河淤泥。运河里停泊着一艘船，船上住着一家采摘桑叶的人。
Fig. 94.—Mulberry orchard to which a heavy dressing of canal mud had been applied. A family of mulberry leaf pickers were living in the boat anchored in the canal.
中国农民在本省采用的另一项同样甚至更为费力的做法是定期在桑园和稻田之间交换土壤。他们的经验是，长期用于桑园的土壤可以改良水稻，而稻田的土壤用于桑园则非常有益。我们在上海、嘉兴和杭州之间乘坐轮船火车旅行时，多次看到有人将稻田里的土壤运过来，堆放在河岸或扔进运河。这些土壤通常是从穿过田野的窄沟中挖取，铺成河床。我们认为，扔进运河的土壤会发生重大变化，可能是通过吸收水中的可溶性植物养料（例如石灰、磷酸和钾），或者通过某种生长或发酵，农民认为，这使得这一过程中的大量劳动是值得的。沿河岸堆放的土壤可能是为了准备用船运到一些桑园。
Another equally, or even more, laborious practice followed by the Chinese farmers in this province is the periodic exchange of soil between mulberry orchards and the rice fields, their experience being that soil long used in the mulberry orchards improves the rice, while soil from the rice fields is very helpful when applied to the mulberry orchards. We saw many instances, when travelling by boat-train between Shanghai, Kashing and Hangchow, of soil being carried from rice fields and either stacked on the banks or dropped into the canal. Such soil was oftenest taken from narrow trenches leading through the fields, laying them off in beds. It is our judgment that the soil thrown into the canals undergoes important changes, perhaps through the absorption of soluble plant food substances such as lime, phosphoric acid and potash withdrawn from the water, or through some growth or fermentation, which, in the judgment of the farmer, makes the large labor involved in this procedure worth while. The stacking of soil along the banks was probably in preparation for its removal by boat to some of the mulberry orchards.
农民们清楚地认识到，从流经乡村的那些水渠段收集的泥土（如图10所示）本质上比在露天乡村收集的泥土更肥沃，物理状态也更好。他们将这种差异归因于乡村在水渠中广泛使用肥皂的冲洗作用。城市的雨水无疑也携带着一些肥料，尽管污水本身从未流入水渠。冲洗很可能会产生明显的絮凝作用，因此在施用于田地时，这些物质会变得更易碎。
It is clearly recognized by the farmers that mud collected from those sections of the canal leading through country villages, such as that seen in Fig. 10, is both inherently more fertile and in better physical condition than that collected in the open country. They attribute this difference to the effect of the village washing in the canal, where soap is extensively used. The storm waters of the city doubtless carry some fertilizing material also, although sewage, as such, never finds its way into the canals. The washing would be very likely to have a decided flocculating effect and so render this material more friable when applied to the field.
用这种泥土大量覆盖田地的一个非常重要的好处是，由于添加了石灰，这些石灰已经与淤泥通过絮凝和沉淀而沉积下来，而蜗牛壳则以水渠中大量存在的形态被添加进来。这些蜗牛壳的数量可以从最近被丢弃的淤泥中大量存在的情况看出，如图95的上半部分所示，水渠表面的卵石状外观是由蜗牛壳造成的。在同一幅图的下半部分，白色斑点是蜗牛壳暴露在刚刚翻耕过的田地土壤中。这些壳的数量通常不如图中所示那么多，但足以维持石灰的供应。
One very important advantage which comes to the fields when heavily dressed with such mud is that resulting from the addition of lime which has become incorporated with the silts through their flocculation and precipitation, and that which is added in the form of snail shells abounding in the canals. The amount of these may be realized from the large numbers contained in the mud recently thrown out, as seen in the upper section of Fig. 95, where the pebbly appearance of the surface is caused by snail shells. In the lower section of the same illustration the white spots are snail shells exposed in the soil of a recently spaded field. The shells are by no means as numerous generally as here seen but yet sufficient to maintain the supply of lime.
图95——上图显示的是刚刚清除的运河淤泥，淤泥中布满了大蜗牛壳。下图显示的是刚刚翻耕过的田地里的蜗牛壳。
Fig. 95.—The recently removed canal mud, in the upper section of the illustration, is heavily charged with large snail shells. The lower section shows the shells in the soil of a recently spaded field.
有几种蜗牛被大量采集并用作食物。在村外的运河沿岸，随处可见成堆的空壳。这些蜗牛带壳烹制后，通常按量出售，可以直接食用，就像我们买烤花生或爆米花一样。购买时，商贩会用一把小剪刀剪掉每个蜗牛壳上的螺旋尖。这样可以让空气进入，当用嘴贴着蜗牛壳时，就能轻松地吸出蜗牛。运河里还有大量的淡水鳗鱼、虾、蟹以及鱼类，它们都被采集并用作人类的食物。在运河沿岸行走时，经常会看到一群群拾荒者在浅浅的农业运河底部忙碌地采集任何可以作为食物的东西，甚至包括小球茎或可食用水生植物的肉质根。为了方便收集这些食物，运河的部分区域通常会采用上文所述的方式排水，以便人们可以徒手涉过泥泞拾取食物。住在船屋里的家庭以捕虾为生。他们会在船屋后面拖曳一两艘其他船只，船上载着数百个精心设计的捕虾笼，当它们沿着水底拖曳时，惊扰到虾，虾就会误以为这些捕虾笼是安全的藏身之处，然后一头扎进笼子里的洞里。
Several species of these snails are collected in quantities and used as food. Piles containing bushels of the empty shells were seen along the canals outside the villages. The snails are cooked in the shell and often sold by measure to be eaten from the hand, as we buy roasted peanuts or popcorn. When a purchase is made the vender clips the spiral point from each shell with a pair of small shears. This admits air and permits the snail to be readily removed by suction when the lips are applied to the shell. In the canals there are also large numbers of fresh water eel, shrimp and crabs as well as fish, all of which are collected and used for human food. It is common, when walking through the canal country, to come upon groups of gleaners busy in the bottoms of the shallow agricultural canals, gathering anything which may serve as food, even including small bulbs or the fleshy roots of edible aquatic plants. To facilitate the collection of such food materials sections of the canal are often drained in the manner already described, so that gleaning may be done by hand, wading in the mud. Families living in houseboats make a business of fishing for shrimp. They trail behind the houseboat one or two other boats carrying hundreds of shrimp traps cleverly constructed in such manner that when they are trailed along the bottom and disturb the shrimps they dart into the holes in the trap, mistaking them for safe hiding places.
在街上，尤其是在节日期间，你会看到年轻人和其他社交人士忙着用手指和牙齿吃煮熟的蜗牛或西瓜子，这些东西在市场上很常见，人们也经常吃。我们第一次看到这种习俗是在嘉兴南部一座城市的街道上，这条城市位于杭州和上海之间的新铁路线上。我们到访的前一天，这条铁路上的首趟客运列车已经开通，那天正好是节日，成群结队的人们正在参观城外一英里外高山上的九层宝塔。限度。对于那些从未见过客运列车的人来说，这一天充满了惊喜，而我本人似乎也引起了许多人的好奇。没有哪个男孩能像一位五十岁的女人那样，如此近距离地、纯粹地、毫不顾及他人感受地审视一只关在笼子里的黑猩猩的脸，而我则坐在火车站的长椅上写作，她站在我面前，距离不到两英尺，甚至还弯下腰。人们会用手抚摸我的衣袖，判断布料的质地，一个男孩还会摸摸我的鞋子。我们走在街上，经过许多聚集在桌边和座位上的人群，他们或来往或洽谈生意，手指上嗑着西瓜子，或拿着一包包煮熟的蜗牛。在通往宝塔的小路上，乞丐们分散开来，一个地方一个，每隔两三百英尺就有一个乞丐，乞讨食物，他们中的大多数人年老体弱，或因其他原因身体残疾。我们只看到一个看起来还能谋生的人。
On the streets, especially during festival days, one may see young people and others in social intercourse, busying their fingers and their teeth eating cooked snails or often watermelon seeds, which are extensively sold and thus eaten. This custom we saw first in the streets of a city south of Kashing on the line of the new railway between Hangchow and Shanghai. The first passenger train over the line had been run the day before our visit, which was a festival day and throngs of people were visiting the nine-story pagoda standing on a high hill a mile outside the city limits. The day was one of great surprises to these people who had never before seen a passenger train, and my own person appeared to be a great curiosity to many. No boy ever scrutinized the face of a caged chimpanzee closer, with purer curiosity, or with less consideration for his feelings than did a woman of fifty scrutinize mine, standing close in front, not two feet distant, even bending forward as I sat upon a bench writing at the railway station. People would pass their hands along my coat sleeve to judge the cloth, and a boy felt of my shoes. Walking through the street we passed many groups gathered about tables and upon seats, visiting or in business conference, their fingers occupied with watermelon seeds or with packages of cooked snails. Along the pathway leading to the pagoda beggars had distributed themselves, one in a place, at intervals of two or three hundred feet, asking alms, most of them infirm with age or in some other way physically disabled. We saw but one who appeared capable of earning a living.
当时上海和杭州之间的客流非常繁忙。有三家公司运营着火车，每趟火车都有六艘或更多的船屋，由一艘蒸汽船牵引，每天都挤满了乘客。我们的火车下午4:30从上海出发，第二天下午5:30抵达杭州，沿着运河行驶了大约117英里。我们花了5.16美元（黄金），为自己和翻译预订了一间五人间的头等舱。这间舱房占据了船的整个宽度，走道不足14英寸，可以从船的两侧走下五级台阶进入。铺位是平坦的裸露木架，30英寸宽，由一块6英寸高的隔板隔开，前面没有栏杆。每位旅客都自带寝具。一张用来盛餐的小桌子，一面镜子，另一面灯，放在隔断的开口处，这样就可以为两个客舱服务，家具也齐全了。客舱的屋顶上盖着遮阳篷，用木板横向隔开，分成两层，每层宽30英寸。隔板高六英寸。在这些区域，乘客们将床铺分开，头靠在一起睡觉，仅由六英寸高的床头板隔开。遮阳篷的高度仅够乘客坐直。通风良好，但隐私性却为零。暴风雨天气时，两侧可以拉上窗帘。
Travel between Shanghai and Hangchow at this time was heavy. Three companies were running trains, of six or more houseboats, each towed by a steam launch, and these were daily crowded with passengers. Our train left Shanghai at 4:30 P. M., reaching Hangchow at 5:30 P. M. the following day, covering a distance along the canal of something more than 117 miles. We paid $5.16, gold, for the exclusive use of a first-cabin, five-berth stateroom for myself and intepreter. It occupied the full width of the boat, lacking about fourteen inches of footway, and could be entered from either side down a flight of five steps. The berths were flat, naked wooden shelves thirty inches wide, separated by a partition headboard six inches high and without railing in front. Each traveler provided his own bedding. A small table upon which meals were served, a mirror on one side and a lamp on the other, set in an opening in the partition, permitting it to serve two staterooms, completed the furnishings. The roof of the staterooms was covered with an awning and divided crosswise into two tiers of berths, each thirty inches wide, by board partitions six inches high. In these sections passengers spread their beds, sleeping heads together, separated only by a headboard six inches high. The awning was only sufficiently high to permit passengers to sit erect. Ventilation was ample but privacy was nil. Curtains could be dropped around the sides in stormy weather.
无论身在何处，每位乘客都能享用餐食。晚餐是热腾腾的米饭，盛在厚重的瓷碗里，碗里盛放着一个带盖、湿润、热气腾腾的木盒。米饭旁边还有黄油薯片大小的小碟装着的绿色三叶草，烹制得恰到好处，佐以佐料；还有煮熟的豆腐配竹笋丝；还有小份猪肉条配豆腐；还有小块肝配竹笋；还有一些绿叶蔬菜和泡茶的热水。如果胃口好，可以再来一份米饭，想喝多少热水都可以。船上没有桌布，没有餐巾，除了茶，其他一切都得用筷子，如果筷子用不了，就用手。用餐结束后，工作人员会清理桌子，并送来热水，如果需要的话，可以放在洗手盆里。洗手盆与茶、茶杯和寝具一起，构成了旅行者的必备装备。到晚上十点为止，每隔一段时间，就会有一名传令员在甲板上走动，为那些想多喝一杯茶的人提供热水，清晨还会再来一次。
Meals were served to each passenger wherever he might be. Dinner consisted of hot steamed rice brought in very heavy porcelain bowls set inside a covered, wet, steaming hot wooden case. With the rice were tiny dishes, butter-chip size, of green clover, nicely cooked and seasoned; of cooked bean curd served with shredded bamboo sprouts; of tiny pork strips with bean curd; of small bits of liver with bamboo sprouts; of greens, and hot water for tea. If the appetite is good one may have a second helping of rice and as much hot water for tea as desired. There was no table linen, no napkins and everything but the tea had to be negotiated with chop sticks, or, these failing, with the fingers. When the meal was finished the table was cleared and water, hot if desired, was brought for your hand basin, which with tea, teacup and bedding, constitute part of the traveler’s outfit. At frequent intervals, up to ten P. M., a crier walked about the deck with hot water for those who might desire an extra cup of tea, and again in the early morning.
每年的这个季节，中国的孵蛋器都开得满满的，我们有幸在RA Haden牧师的陪同下参观了其中一家，他还担任翻译。孵蛋技术在中国非常古老，而且应用非常广泛。图96显示了其中一家孵蛋器的内部景观，一家人正在孵鸡蛋、鸭蛋和鹅蛋，然后购买鸡蛋，孵出的雏鸡出售。和中国的许多行业一样，这个家庭是从事这一行业的最后一代人。我们从他们的商店进去，商店的门面朝向图10中所示的那个狭窄村庄的街道。在商店里，鸡蛋被购买，雏鸡被出售。出售，这项工作由家中的女性负责。房屋的最后方安装了三十台孵化器，每台孵化器均在运行，每台可容纳1200枚鸡蛋。图中可以看到其中四台孵化器，以及一个篮子，当篮子装满三分之二的鸡蛋时，每个孵化器都会放进去。
At this season of the year Chinese incubators were being run to their full capacity and it was our good fortune to visit one of these, escorted by Rev. R. A. Haden, who also acted as interpreter. The art of incubation is very old and very extensively practiced in China. An interior view of one of these establishments is shown in Fig. 96, where the family were hatching the eggs of hens, ducks and geese, purchasing the eggs and selling the young as hatched. As in the case of so many trades in China, this family was the last generation of a long line whose lives had been spent in the same work. We entered through their store, opening on the street of the narrow village seen in Fig. 10. In the store the eggs were purchased and the chicks were sold, this work being in charge of the women of the family. It was in the extreme rear of the home that thirty incubators were installed, all doing duty and each having a capacity of 1,200 hens’ eggs. Four of these may be seen in the illustration and one of the baskets which, when two-thirds filled with eggs, is set inside of each incubator.
每个孵化器由一个大陶罐组成，陶罐一侧开有一扇门，可以通过门放入燃烧的木炭，并将火部分闷在一层灰烬下，灰烬作为热源。陶罐完全隔热，用篮筐包裹，并配有盖子，如图所示。外罐内放置着另一个大小几乎相同的孵化器，大小与一个茶杯放在另一个茶杯中的大小相当。将一个大篮子放入孵化器中，篮子里装有600枚鸡蛋、400枚鸭蛋或175枚鹅蛋（视情况而定）。30个这样的孵化器平行排列成两排，每排15个。在每排孵化器的正上方，利用从孵化器上升的空气热量，连续排列着育雏器和育雏器，这些孵化器呈编织浅盘状，侧面温暖。垫上棉花，上面盖上不同厚度的被子。
Each incubator consists of a large earthenware jar having a door cut in one side through which live charcoal may be introduced and the fire partly smothered under a layer of ashes, this serving as the source of heat. The jar is thoroughly insulated, cased in basketwork and provided with a cover, as seen in the illustration. Inside the outer jar rests a second of nearly the same size, as one teacup may in another. Into this is lowered the large basket with its 600 hens’ eggs, 400 ducks’ eggs or 175 geese’ eggs, as the case may be. Thirty of these incubators were arranged in two parallel rows of fifteen each. Immediately above each row, and utilizing the warmth of the air rising from them, was a continuous line of finishing hatchers and brooders in the form of woven shallow trays with sides warmly padded with cotton and with the tops covered with sets of quilts of different thickness.
图 96. 一个房间里有 30 个中国孵化器，每个孵化器可容纳 1,200 只鸡蛋。
Fig. 96.—Four Chinese incubators in a room where there are thirty, each haying a capacity of 1,200 hens’ eggs.
一篮鸡蛋孵化四天后，会取出并在灯光下检查，以去除未受精的鸡蛋，防止它们无法出售。未受精的鸡蛋会被送往商店，而篮子则会被放回孵化器。鸭蛋同样会在孵化两天后和五天后再次检查；鹅蛋则会在孵化六天和十四天后再次检查。通过这些预防措施，几乎可以避免所有因未受精鸡蛋造成的损失，95% 到 98% 的受精鸡蛋能够孵化，未受精鸡蛋的比例在 5% 到 25% 之间。
After a basket of hens’ eggs has been incubated four days it is removed and the eggs examined by lighting, to remove those which are infertile before they have been rendered unsalable. The infertile eggs go to the store and the basket is returned to the incubator. Ducks’ eggs are similarly examined after two days and again after five days incubation; and geese’ eggs after six days and again after fourteen days. Through these precautions practically all loss from infertile eggs is avoided and from 95 to 98 per cent of the fertile eggs are hatched, the infertile eggs ranging from 5 to 25 per cent.
孵化器孵化第四天后，所有鸡蛋在24小时内都要翻动五次。鸡蛋在下层孵化器中孵化11天，鸭蛋13天，鹅蛋16天，之后才转移到孵化盘中。在整个孵化期间，都要对温度进行最仔细的观察和控制。孵化人员不使用温度计，而是掀开盖子或被子，取出鸡蛋，将较大的一端压入眼窝。这样，在皮肤敏感的地方，温度几乎恒定，但略低于血液温度，并且空气暂时被隔绝在外，与鸡蛋接触面积较大。长期的练习使他们能够迅速而准确地判断细微的温度差异；并且在孵化的不同阶段，它们会保持不同的温度。男人们睡在房间里，有人持续值班，巡视孵化器和育雏器，根据每个孵化器和育雏器的需要进行检查和调节，例如管理孵化器的门或更换育雏器托盘上的蛋盖。雏鸡会把蛋放在育雏器托盘里，直到它们被送去储存。在育雏托盘里，蛋会形成不止一层连续的蛋层，但第二层蛋层的覆盖面积不超过托盘面积的五分之一或四分之一。鸡蛋在这些托盘里存放十天，鸭蛋和鹅蛋则存放十四天。
After the fourth day in the incubator all eggs are turned five times in twenty-four hours. Hens’ eggs are kept in the lower incubator eleven days; ducks’ eggs thirteen days, and geese’ eggs sixteen days, after which they are transferred to the trays. Throughout the incubation period the most careful watch and control is kept over the temperature. No thermometer is used but the operator raises the lid or quilt, removes an egg, pressing the large end into the eye socket. In this way a large contact is made where the skin is sensitive, nearly constant in temperature, but little below blood heat and from which the air is excluded for the time. Long practice permits them thus to judge small differences of temperature expeditiously and with great accuracy; and they maintain different temperatures during different stages of the incubation. The men sleep in the room and some one is on duty continuously, making the rounds of the incubators and brooders, examining and regulating each according to its individual needs, through the management of the doors or the shifting of the quilts over the eggs in the brooder trays where the chicks leave the eggs and remain until they go to the store. In the finishing trays the eggs form rather more than one continuous layer but the second layer does not cover more than a fifth or a quarter of the area. Hens’ eggs are in these trays ten days, ducks’ and geese’ eggs, fourteen days.
小鸡孵化到需要喂养的时间后，就可以上市了。之后，它们会被根据性别进行分类，并分别放置在直径30英寸的浅编织托盘中。分类过程快速准确，依靠触觉，操作人员轻轻捏一下肛门就能识别性别。我们走进临街的商店时，那里有四托盘小鸡，几个妇女正在选购，每人买了五到十二只。哈登博士告诉我，几乎每个城市和乡村的家庭都会养几只鸡，但数量有限。经常可以看到成年鸡在狭窄的街道上走来走去，进出开放式商店，躲避着店员和路人的脚步。我们去的时候，这家人以每只10美分（墨西哥价格）的价格购买了九个鸡蛋和八个鸭蛋，而他们最大的健壮鸡则以每只3美分的价格出售。这些数字，换算成我们的货币，就是鸡蛋的购买价格接近 48 美分，小鸡的售价为每百只 1.29 美元，或者十三个鸡蛋售价六美分，七只小鸡售价九美分。
After the chickens have been hatched sufficiently long to require feeding they are ready for market and are then sorted according to sex and placed in separate shallow woven trays thirty inches in diameter. The sorting is done rapidly and accurately through the sense of touch, the operator recognizing the sex by gently pinching the anus. Four trays of young chickens were in the store fronting on the street as we entered and several women were making purchases, taking five to a dozen each. Dr. Haden informed me that nearly every family in the cities, and in the country villages raise a few, but only a few, chickens and it is a common sight to see grown chickens walking about the narrow streets, in and out of the open stores, dodging the feet of the occupants and passers by. At the time of our visit this family was paying at the rate of ten cents, Mexican, for nine hens’ and eight ducks’ eggs, and were selling their largest strong chickens at three cents each. These figures, translated into our currency, make the purchase price for eggs nearly 48 cents, and the selling price for the young chicks $1.29, per hundred, or thirteen eggs for six cents and seven chickens for nine cents.
很难想象，更不用说衡量，如何才能在数百万家庭中持续获得绝对新鲜、绝对卫生的肉类和蛋类动物食品，这一解决方案的重要性。这些国家人口密度高，因此鸡蛋供应问题与美国截然不同。1900年，我国家禽数量为2.506亿只，人均拥有3只；而日本拥有1650万只家禽，1906年却只有每3人拥有一只。然而，日本每平方英里耕地的家禽数量为825只，而1900年的美国，每平方英里改良农田的家禽数量仅为387只。要让日本每人拥有3只家禽，平均每英亩耕地需要大约9只家禽，而1900年的美国则有。每只家禽需要近两英亩的改良农田。我们没有关于中国家禽数量和鸡蛋产量的统计数据，但其总量非常大，而且她还出口到日本。图97中看到的那艘满载鸡蛋的船刚刚从日本抵达，通过她的一条运河抵达上海。
It is difficult even to conceive, not to say measure, the vast import of this solution of how to maintain, in the millions of homes, a constantly accessible supply of absolutely fresh and thoroughly sanitary animal food in the form of meat and eggs. The great density of population in these countries makes the problem of supplying eggs to the people very different from that in the United States. Our 250,600,000 fowl in 1900 was at the rate of three to each person but in Japan, with her 16,500,000 fowl, she had in 1906 but one for every three people. Her number per square mile of cultivated land however was 825, while in the United States, in 1900, the number of fowls per square mile of improved farm land was but 387. To give to Japan three fowls to each person there would needs be an average of about nine to each acre of her cultivated land, whereas in the United States there were in 1900 nearly two acres of improved farm land for each fowl. We have no statistics regarding the number of fowl in China or the number of eggs produced but the total is very large and she exports to Japan. The large boat load of eggs seen in Fig. 97 had just arrived from the country, coming into Shanghai in one of her canals.
除了用上述方法将沟渠淤泥直接施用于田地外，还有其他非常广泛的做法，比如用各种有机物将其堆肥，然后再用于田地。接下来的三幅插图展示了一些步骤，以及人们心甘情愿、乐于承担的巨大体力劳动，以及人们为了维持家庭生计，让祖父母、父母、妻子和孩子免于挨饿或乞讨而采取的一些深谋远虑的措施。我们到达了图98所示的一个地方，八个搬运工正在将冬季堆肥搬运到相邻田地里一个新挖的坑里，如图99所示。
Besides applying canal mud directly to the fields in the ways described there are other very extensive practices of composting it with organic matter of one or another kind and of then using the compost on the fields. The next three illustrations show some of the steps and something of the tremendous labor of body, willingly and cheerfully incurred, and something of the forethought practiced, that homes may be maintained and that grandparents, parents, wives and children need neither starve nor beg. We had reached a place seen in Fig. 98, where eight bearers were moving winter compost to a recently excavated pit in an adjoining field shown in Fig. 99.
图 97——上海苏州河上载有 150 篮鸡蛋的船。
Fig. 97.—Boatload of 150 baskets of eggs on Soochow creek, Shanghai, China.
在摄像机拍摄到这一幕的四个月前，人们把上海马厩里的废物从水路运到十五英里外的地方，堆放在运河岸边。一层层薄薄的泥浆从水渠中渗出，然后任其发酵。八个男人把这些堆肥运到图99所示的坑里，坑里几乎已经填满了。在同一块田地里附近还有第二个坑，如图100所示，它挖了90厘米深，周围用土块填满，使坑深了60厘米。
Four months before the camera fixed the activity shown, men had brought waste from the stables of Shanghai fifteen miles by water, depositing it upon the canal bank between layers of thin mud dipped from the canal, and left it to ferment. The eight men were removing this compost to the pit seen in Fig. 99, then nearly filled. Near by in the same field was a second pit seen in Fig. 100, excavated three feet deep and rimmed about with the earth removed, making it two feet deeper.
图 98 八名搬运工将一堆冬季堆肥搬运到图 99 中田野中新挖出的坑中。前景中装载的船是刚从家乡运来的肥料和灰烬的混合物。
Fig. 98.—Eight bearers moving a pile of winter compost to the recently excavated pit in the field seen in Fig. 99. The boatload in the foreground is a mixture of manure and ashes just arrived from the home village.
这些坑填满后，会把坑外盛开的三叶草割下来，堆放在上面，高度五到八英尺，然后再一层层地用从运河运来的泥土浸透，发酵二十到三十天，直到释放出的汁液被下面的冬季堆肥吸收，帮助堆肥进一步成熟，直到为下一茬作物做好土壤准备。这些与运河淤泥一起发酵的有机物，之后会被工人们用肩膀第三次扛到田里，尽管它们有好几吨重。
After these pits had been filled the clover which was in blossom beyond the pits would be cut and stacked upon them to a hight of five to eight feet and this also saturated, layer by layer, with mud brought from the canal, and allowed to ferment twenty to thirty days until the juices set free had been absorbed by the winter compost beneath, helping to carry the ripening of that still further, and until the time had arrived for fitting the ground for the next crop. This organic matter, fermented with the canal mud, would then be distributed by the men over the field, carried a third time on their shoulders, notwithstanding its weight was many tons.
图 99. 毗邻三叶草田的堆肥坑，里面填满了图 98 中运河岸边的冬季堆肥。
Fig. 99.—Compost pit adjacent to a field of clover, being filled from the pile of winter compost seen on the bank of the canal in Fig. 98.
图 100——图 98 中所示的最近挖掘的用于接收冬季堆肥的坑，坑外的三叶草将被切割并堆肥，作为水稻作物的肥料。
Fig. 100.—Recently excavated pit for receiving winter compost seen in Fig. 98, and upon which the clover beyond the pit will be cut and composted as a fertilizer for a crop of rice.
这些肥料已经收集、装车并通过水路运送了十五英里；它被卸到岸边并用运河的淤泥浸透；去年秋天，这片田地已经为种植三叶草做好了准备并播种；田里的坑已经挖好；冬季堆肥已经运送并放置在坑中；三叶草将被割下，由工人们扛在肩上，一层一层地堆放起来，并用从运河中浸透的淤泥浸透；之后，所有肥料将被撒在田地上，最后将从坑中挖出的泥土归还给他们，这样就不会浪费任何可以种植作物的土地。
This manure had been collected, loaded and carried fifteen miles by water; it had been unloaded upon the bank and saturated with canal mud; the field had been fitted for clover the previous fall and seeded; the pits had been dug in the fields; the winter compost had been carried and placed in the pits; the clover was to be cut, carried by the men on their shoulders, stacked layer by layer and saturated with mud dipped from the canal; the whole would later be distributed over the field and finally the earth removed from the pits would be returned to them, that the service of no ground upon which a crop might grow should be lost.
图 101——用于建造泥土和三叶草堆肥堆。
Fig. 101.—Providing for the building of a mud-and-clover compost stack.
中国农民就是这样坚持不懈地耕耘的，因为他们坚信理想的结果终将实现，因为他们的土地面积很小，而家庭人口却很大。这些做法在中国非常普遍，而且在维持土壤高生产力方面发挥着至关重要的作用，因此我们特意追踪了这些做法的不同阶段。在图101中，我们看到了人们正在准备建造一个浸透了运河淤泥的三叶草堆肥堆。左边是运河里捞出的稀薄淤泥；中间是行人，他们正穿过乡间小路的人行桥；远处是锥形茅草棚，用来给正在抽水灌溉水稻的水牛提供庇护，这些水稻作物将用这种植物肥料进行灌溉。右边是两大堆刚割下来的绿色三叶草，其中一捆的一位妇女正在将三叶草铺开接住淤泥，而男人们则从田里出来，用扁担挑着更多的三叶草。我们在晚饭前发现了这一幕。工人们离开后，我们又从更近的距离和不同的角度拍摄了一张照片，就得到了图102所示的景象。泥土已经清理了好几天，变得太硬，无法摊开。于是，人们用桶从右边的水渠里提水，把泥土稀释成稀粥状，以便更彻底地涂抹和浸透三叶草。泥堆一层一层地堆积起来，每一层都浸透了泥土，人们赤脚踩踏，裤腿卷得高高的。这里已经做好了准备，可以再建四个泥堆。
Such are the tasks to which Chinese farmers hold themselves, because they are convinced desired results will follow, because their holdings are so small and their families so large. These practices are so extensive in China and so fundamental in the part they play in the maintenance of high productive power in their soils that we made special effort to follow them through different phases. In Fig. 101 we saw the preparation being made to build one of the clover compost stacks saturated with canal mud. On the left the thin mud had been dipped from the canal; way-farers in the center were crossing the foot-bridge of the country by-way; and beyond rises the conical thatch to shelter the water buffalo when pumping for irrigating the rice crop to be fed with this plant food in preparation. On the right were two large piles of green clover freshly cut and a woman of the family at one of them was spreading it to receive the mud, while the men-folk were coming from the field with more clover on their carrying poles. We came upon this scene just before the dinner hour and after the workers had left another photograph was taken at closer range and from a different side, giving the view seen in Fig. 102. The mud had been removed some days and become too stiff to spread, so water was being brought from the canal in the pails at the right for reducing its consistency to that of a thin porridge, permitting it to more completely smear and saturate the clover. The stack grew, layer by layer, each saturated with the mud, tramped solid with the bare feet, trousers rolled high. Provision had been made here for building four other stacks.
图 102.—建筑物内的三叶草堆肥堆。
Fig. 102.—Clover compost stack in the building.
图 103——这位年轻人正在用可以随意打开和关闭的长柄蛤壳挖泥机将运河泥浆装入船上。
Fig. 103.—The young man is loading his boat with canal mud, using the long-handled clam-shell dredge which he can open and close at will.
继续前行，我们来到了图 103中的场景。堆肥和从运河收集淤泥是同时进行的。在运河的一侧，儿子用一个用篮子编成的蛤壳状长柄勺（可以用一对竹柄打开和关闭）舀出的稀薄淤泥几乎填满了船的中段；而在另一侧，靠着正在堆积的淤泥堆，母亲正用一个同样带竹柄的大长柄勺舀出一艘类似的船。淤泥堆上的男人是判断淤泥大小的一个很好的尺度。
Further along we came upon the scene in Fig. 103 where the building of the stack of compost and the gathering of the mud from the canal were simultaneous. On one side of the canal the son, using a clam-shell form of dipper made of basket-work, which could be opened and shut with a pair of bamboo handles, had nearly filled the middle section of his boat with the thin ooze, while on the other side, against the stack which was building, the mother was emptying a similar boat, using a large dipper, also provided with a bamboo handle. The man on the stack is a good scale for judging its size.
图 104——已完成的堆肥堆。
Fig. 104.—A completed compost stack.
我们接下来在另一条水渠的岸边发现了一个已建好的堆肥堆，如图104所示。我们的伞就放在那里，用作称重。这个堆肥堆平铺测量尺寸为3米乘3米，高约1.8米，里面肯定装了超过20吨的绿色堆肥。在同一地点，另外两个堆肥堆也已开始建造，每个堆肥堆约4.6米乘4.6米，另外六个堆肥堆的地基也已打好，总共有9个。
We came next upon a finished stack on the bank of another canal, shown in Fig. 104, where our umbrella was set to serve as a scale. This stack measured ten by ten feet on the ground, was six feet high and must have contained more than twenty tons of the green compost. At the same place, two other stacks had been started, each about fourteen by fourteen feet, and foundations were laid for six others, nine in all.
在二十天或更长的时间里，这些绿色的含氮有机物被允许与它所接触的软泥的细土颗粒接触，进行发酵。收费。这是一种非凡的做法，因为它是一项非常古老而密集的应用，它运用了一项重要的基本原理，直到最近才被理解并添加到农业科学中，即有机物质与土壤接触后迅速腐烂，从而释放出可溶性植物养分的能力；因此，如果说这些费力的做法是出于无知、缺乏准确思考能力或缺乏掌握和利用的能力，那就大错特错了。如果美国的农业用地需要养活哪怕12亿人口（这一比例还不到日本目前人口的一半），那么我们当时采用的做法与我们目前的做法截然不同。我们可以相信，这些做法将需要更少的人力投入，而且效率更高。但是，我们的农民尚未掌握实现这些目标的知识，更不用说确信植物养护以及更持久、更有针对性的土壤管理对于实现未来所需的产量至关重要。
During twenty or more days this green nitrogenous organic matter is permitted to lie fermenting in contact with the fine soil particles of the ooze with which it had been charged. This is a remarkable practice in that it is a very old, intensive application of an important fundamental principle only recently understood and added to the science of agriculture, namely, the power of organic matter, decaying rapidly in contact with soil, to liberate from it soluble plant food; and so it would be a great mistake to say that these laborious practices are the result of ignorance, of a lack of capacity for accurate thinking or of power to grasp and utilize. If the agricultural lands of the United States are ever called upon to feed even 1200 millions of people, a number proportionately less than one-half that being fed in Japan today, very different practices from those we are now following will have been adopted. We can believe they will require less human bodily effort and be more efficient. But the knowledge which can make them so is not yet in the possession of our farmers, much less the conviction that plant feeding and more persistent and better directed soil management are necessary to such yields as will then be required.
后来，就在插秧季即将到来之前，我们回到了同一个地区，观察了施肥的方法。图105是根据当时拍摄的照片绘制的，描绘了一个家庭在5月28日上午的活动。他们的家在附近的一个村庄里，土地被分成四块近乎矩形的稻田，稻田按水位线平整，并用凸起的边缘隔开，总面积接近两英亩。图中部分显示了其中三块小田地，第四块田地在图160中显示。在图105上半部分的背景中，茅草棚下，有一头中国土牛，它被蒙着眼睛拴在一个大型木链泵的动力轮上，从水渠里抽水，淹没前景中的田地，松软土壤，便于耕作。动力轮上骑着一个大约12岁的女孩、另一个7岁的女孩和一个婴儿。他们来这里是为了娱乐，也是为了看牛是否在继续工作。地面已经足够松软，父亲开始耕作时，母牛跪倒在地。在同一片稻田里，但在下图中，一个男孩正用手铺开三叶草堆肥，小心翼翼地将其分散均匀。在开始耕作之前，他已经来过这里一次了。堆肥是从水渠边的堆肥堆里运来的，另外两个男人正忙着把堆肥运到另一片稻田里，其中一人扛着扁担，篮子挂在扁担上，出现在第三部分。在这两片稻田之间，是图画底部的一片，那里的油菜已经成熟，收割后的油菜籽成捆地躺在那里，准备运走。另外两个男人在这里忙碌着，把油菜籽捆成大捆，运到村里的家庭。那里的妇女们正在脱粒，小心翼翼地不弄断茎秆。脱粒后，茎秆被捆成捆，用作燃料。种子会被磨碎，榨出油，而饼粕则用作肥料。
Later, just before the time for transplanting rice, we returned to the same district to observe the manner of applying this compost to the field, and Fig. 105 is prepared from photographs taken then, illustrating the activities of one family, as seen during the morning of May 28th. Their home was in a near-by village and their holding was divided into four nearly rectangular paddies, graded to water level, separated by raised rims, and having an area of nearly two acres. Three of these little fields are partly shown in the illustration, and the fourth in Fig. 160. In the background of the upper section of Fig. 105, and under the thatched shelter, was a native Chinese cow, blindfolded and hitched to the power-wheel of a large wooden-chain pump, lifting water from the canal and flooding the field in the foreground, to soften the soil for plowing. Riding on the power-wheel was a girl of some twelve years, another of seven and a baby. They were there for entertainment and to see that the cow kept at work. The ground had been sufficiently softened so that the father had begun plowing, the cow sinking to her knees as she walked. In the same paddy, but shown in the section below, a boy was spreading the clover compost with his hands, taking care that it was finely divided and evenly scattered. He had been once around before the plowing began. This compost had been brought from a stack by the side of a canal, and two other men were busy still bringing the material to one of the other paddies, one of whom, with his baskets on the carrying pole appears in the third section. Between these two paddies was the one seen at the bottom of the illustration, which had matured a crop of rape that had been pulled and was lying in swaths ready to be moved. Two other men were busy here, gathering the rape into large bundles and carrying it to the village home, where the women were threshing out the seed, taking care not to break the stems which, after threshing, were tied into bundles for fuel. The seed would be ground and from it an oil expressed, while the cake would be used as a fertilizer.
油菜这种作物因其与当地居民经济的契合度而引人注目。它是芥菜和卷心菜的近亲；它在季节较凉爽的时期生长迅速，春季作物在水稻和棉花种植前成熟；它的嫩芽和嫩叶多汁，营养丰富，易于消化，被广泛用作人类食物，可以煮熟后鲜食，或腌制后冬季与米饭一起食用；成熟的茎秆木质化，是很好的燃料；它结出丰硕的种子，富含油，被广泛用于照明和烹饪，而油菜籽饼则是一种备受推崇的肥料，用途非常广泛。
This crop of rape is remarkable for the way it fits into the economies of these people. It is a near relative of mustard and cabbage; it grows rapidly during the cooler portions of the season, the spring crop ripening before the planting of rice and cotton; its young shoots and leaves are succulent, nutritious, readily digested and extensively used as human food, boiled and eaten fresh, or salted for winter use, to be served with rice; the mature stems, being woody, make good fuel; and it bears a heavy crop of seed, rich in oil, which has been extensively used for lights and in cooking, while the rape seed cake is highly prized as a manure and very extensively so used.
初春时节，大片油菜花田郁郁葱葱，一片翠绿。油菜花渐渐变成一片鲜艳的黄色海洋，随着叶片落下、茎秆和豆荚成熟，最终化为灰烬。如同奶牛一样，油菜籽也能产出油脂，其比例约为每100磅油籽产出40磅油。如果将油饼和茎秆灰烬返还给田地，这些油脂可供食用、焚烧或出售，而不会对土壤的肥力造成实质性的损害。油籽油的成分几乎全部来自大气而非土壤。
In the early spring the country is luxuriantly green with the large acreage of rape, later changing to a sea of most brilliant yellow and finally to an ashy grey when the leaves fall and the stems and pods ripen. Like the dairy cow, rape produces a fat, in the ratio of about forty pounds of oil to a hundred pounds of seed, which may be eaten, burned or sold without materially robbing the soil of its fertility if the cake and the ashes from the stems are returned to the fields, the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of which the oil is almost wholly composed coming from the atmosphere rather than from the soil.
图 105、一个家庭的活动，施肥并耕种稻田。
Fig. 105.—The activities of a family, fertilizing and fitting paddies for rice.
在日本，油菜是旱田和稻田的副作作物。1906年，她生产了超过554.7万蒲式耳的油菜籽，以及价值184.5万美元的油菜籽饼。她还进口了足够多的油菜籽，总价值达到257.5万美元。这些油菜籽全部用作肥料，油则出口。日本每英亩油菜籽的产量在13到16蒲式耳之间。据拍摄田地的那位农民估计，他从油菜籽作物中获得的回报为每英亩640磅油菜籽，价值6.19美元；以及每英亩8000磅油菜茎，价值5.16美元。
In Japan rape is grown as a second crop on both the upland and paddy fields, and in 1906 she produced more than 5,547,000 bushels of the seed; $1,845,000 worth of rape seed cake, importing enough more to equal a total value of $2,575,000, all of which was used as a fertilizer, the oil being exported. The yield of seed per acre in Japan ranges between thirteen and sixteen bushels, and the farmer whose field was photographed estimated that his returns from the crop would be at the rate of 640 pounds of seed per acre, worth $6.19, and 8,000 pounds of stems worth as fuel $5.16 per acre.
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任何文明民族所采用的最杰出的农业实践之一，就是中国、韩国和日本数百年来几乎普遍地保存和利用所有人类排泄物，并将其转化为维持土壤肥力和生产粮食的神奇力量。要理解这一演变，必须认识到，现代西方农业中广泛使用的矿物肥料，就像广泛使用矿煤一样，直到最近几年才被所有民族普遍接受。这一事实必须与这些民族的长寿不间断以及其农民被迫养活的庞大人口联系起来。
One of the most remarkable agricultural practices adopted by any civilized people is the centuries-long and well nigh universal conservation and utilization of all human waste in China, Korea and Japan, turning it to marvelous account in the maintenance of soil fertility and in the production of food. To understand this evolution it must be recognized that mineral fertilizers so extensively employed in modern western agriculture, like the extensive use of mineral coal, had been a physical impossibility to all people alike until within very recent years. With this fact must be associated the very long unbroken life of these nations and the vast numbers their farmers have been compelled to feed.
当我们反思我们自己古老农田的肥力日益下降时，其中只有很少一部分已经使用了百年，并且为了获得高产，每年要在这些农田上施用大量的矿物肥料，显然现在是时候深刻反思蒙古民族几个世纪以来所保持的做法了，这使得我们可以说中国六分之一英亩的良田足以养活一个人，而在日本四个主要岛屿最南端的三个岛屿上，每英亩农田平均养活了三个人。
When we reflect upon the depleted fertility of our own older farm lands, comparatively few of which have seen a century’s service, and upon the enormous quantity of mineral fertilizers which are being applied annually to them in order to secure paying yields, it becomes evident that the time is here when profound consideration should be given to the practices the Mongolian race has maintained through many centuries, which permit it to be said of China that one-sixth of an acre of good land is ample for the maintenance of one person, and which are feeding an average of three people per acre of farm land in the three southernmost of the four main islands of Japan.
从 Wolff 在欧洲和 Kellner 在日本对混合人类排泄物进行的分析来看，平均而言，每2000磅粪便含有12.7磅氮、4磅钾和1.7磅磷。根据卡彭特的估算，成年人每天的平均排泄物量为40盎司，那么每百万成年人口每年平均产生的排泄物为5794300磅氮、1825000磅钾和775600磅磷，这些排泄物总共含有456250吨。霍尔在《肥料与粪肥》中引用的数字，应该相当于7940000磅氮、3070500磅钾和1965600磅磷，但他所采用并称之为高平均值的数字，却给出了12000000磅氮； 4,151,000 磅钾和 3,057,600 磅磷。
From the analyses of mixed human excreta made by Wolff in Europe and by Kellner in Japan it appears that, as an average, these carry in every 2000 pounds 12.7 pounds of nitrogen, 4 pounds of potassium and 1.7 pounds of phosphorus. On this basis and that of Carpenter, who estimates the average amount of excreta per day for the adult at 40 ounces, the average annual production per million of adult population is 5,794,300 pounds of nitrogen; 1,825,000 pounds of potassium, and 775,600 pounds of phosphorus carried in 456,250 tons of excreta. The figures which Hall cites in Fertilizers and Manures, would make these amounts 7,940,000 pounds of nitrogen; 3,070,500 pounds of potassium, and 1,965,600 pounds of phosphorus, but the figures he takes and calls high averages give 12,000,000 of nitrogen; 4,151,000 pounds of potassium, and 3,057,600 pounds of phosphorus.
1908年，上海国际租界以3.1万美元黄金的价格，将收集7.8万吨人类排泄物的特权卖给了一位中国承包商。根据既定规定，这些排泄物将被运往农村出售给农民。图106所示的船队是上海全年每天从事此类服务的几艘船队之一。
In 1908 the International Concessions of the city of Shanghai sold to one Chinese contractor for $31,000, gold, the privilege of collecting 78,000 tons of human waste, under stipulated regulations, and of removing it to the country for sale to farmers. The flotilla of boats seen in Fig. 106 is one of several engaged daily in Shanghai throughout the year in this service.
国家农商部的川口博士根据他们的记录数据告诉我们，1908年日本节省下来并用于田地的人粪肥达23,850,295吨，相当于四个主要岛屿上21,321平方英里耕地每英亩平均1.75吨。
Dr. Kawaguchi, of the National Department of Agriculture and Commerce, taking his data from their records, informed us that the human manure saved and applied to the fields of Japan in 1908 amounted to 23,850,295 tons, which is an average of 1.75 tons per acre of their 21,321 square miles of cultivated land in their four main islands.
根据沃尔夫、凯尔纳和卡彭特或霍尔的数据，美国和欧洲人民每年向海洋、湖泊、河流和地下水中排放5,794,300至12,000,000磅氮、1,881,900至4,151,000磅钾和777,200至3,057,600磅磷，而我们却把这些废物视为我们文明的伟大成就之一。在远东，三百多个世纪以来，这些巨大的废物一直被虔诚地保存着，今天，四亿成年人口每年将15万吨磷送回他们的田地； 376,000 吨钾、1,158,000 吨氮，总重量超过 1.82 亿吨，是从每个家庭、乡村以及汉口、武昌、汉阳等大城市收集的，这些城市有 1,770,000 人居住在半径四英里的土地上。
On the basis of the data of Wolff, Kellner and Carpenter, or of Hall, the people of the United States and of Europe are pouring into the sea, lakes or rivers and into the underground waters from 5,794,300 to 12,000,000 pounds of nitrogen; 1,881,900 to 4,151,000 pounds of potassium, and 777,200 to 3,057,600 pounds of phosphorus per million of adult population annually, and this waste we esteem one of the great achievements of our civilization. In the Far East, for more than thirty centuries, these enormous wastes have been religiously saved and today the four hundred million of adult population send back to their fields annually 150,000 tons of phosphorus; 376,000 tons of potassium, and 1,158,000 tons of nitrogen comprised in a gross weight exceeding 182 million tons, gathered from every home, from the country villages and from the great cities like Hankow-Wuchang-Hanyang with its 1,770,000 people swarming on a land area delimited by a radius of four miles.
图 106——苏州河上的一支运粪船队，正在中国上海市收集人类排泄物，然后运往耕地。
Fig. 106.—A flotilla of manure boats on Soochow creek, collecting human wastes in the city of Shanghai, China, for removal to cultivated fields.
图 107——中国上海周边乡村的地图，显示了几条运河，城市垃圾通过这些运河通过船运送到农场。
Fig. 107.—Map of country surrounding Shanghai, China, showing a few of the many canals on which the waste of the city is conveyed by boat to the farms.
人类是世间迄今为止最肆意浪费的加速器。他带来的枯萎之灾降临到他所能触及的一切生物身上，包括他自己。例外；而他那毁灭性的扫帚，在一代人不受控制的手中，将只有几百年的生命才能积累的土壤肥力扫入大海，而这种肥力正是所有生物的基石。必须认识到，我们开始返回田地的磷酸盐沉积物，只是衡量古老土壤肥力损失的标准，也是仍在进行中的进程的指标。据估计，北美河流每立方英里的水会将超过500吨的磷带入大海。除了这样的损失之外，现代文明还增加了水力污水处理，五亿人每年产生的磷可能超过194,300吨，而这些磷是1,295,000吨纯度为75%的磷酸盐岩无法替代的。蒙古族人，如今，人口已接近上述数字；他们所占的土地面积仅略大于美国的一半，耕种的土地不到80万平方英里，其中大部分耕种时间长达二、三、四千年；他们无法利用矿物肥料，无法生存，也无法忍受这种浪费。为了避免这种浪费，他们运用了自己特有的能力，“把桶扔在原地”，正如
Man is the most extravagant accelerator of waste the world has ever endured. His withering blight has fallen upon every living thing within his reach, himself not excepted; and his besom of destruction in the uncontrolled hands of a generation has swept into the sea soil fertility which only centuries of life could accumulate, and yet this fertility is the substratum of all that is living. It must be recognized that the phosphate deposits which we are beginning to return to our fields are but measures of fertility lost from older soils, and indices of processes still in progress. The rivers of North America are estimated to carry to the sea more than 500 tons of phosphorus with each cubic mile of water. To such loss modern civilization is adding that of hydraulic sewage disposal through which the waste of five hundred millions of people might be more than 194,300 tons of phosphorus annually, which could not be replaced by 1,295,000 tons of rock phosphate, 75 per cent pure. The Mongolian races, with a population now approaching the figure named; occupying an area little more than one-half that of the United States, tilling less than 800,000 square miles of land, and much of this during twenty, thirty or perhaps forty centuries; unable to avail themselves of mineral fertilizers, could not survive and tolerate such waste. Compelled to solve the problem of avoiding such wastes, and exercising the faculty which is characteristic of the race, they “cast down their buckets where they were”, as
图108——日本广泛用于清理城市和乡村垃圾的一种交通工具。这种车通常由人拉，而不是牛或马拉。牛和马背上都驮着用鞍座支撑的密封桶，而男人们则用扁担将桶扛在肩上长途跋涉。
Fig. 108.—Type of conveyance extensively used in Japan for the removal of city and village waste. Such carts are even more frequently drawn by men than by cattle or horses, and tightly covered casks supported on saddles are borne on the backs of both cattle and horses, while men carry pails long distances on their shoulders, using the carrying pole.
*一艘在海上迷失多日的船突然发现了一艘友军船只。这艘不幸的船只的桅杆上发出信号：“水，水；我们渴死了！”友军船只立即回应道：“把你的水桶扔到原地。”遇险船只第二次发出信号：“水，水；给我们送水！”，得到的回应是：“把你的水桶扔到原地。”第三次和第四次求水信号都得到了回应：“把你的水桶扔到原地。”遇险船只的船长终于听从了指令，扔下了他的水桶，桶里装满了来自亚马逊河河口的清澈见底的水。
* A ship lost at sea for many days suddenly sighted a friendly vessel. From the mast of the unfortunate vessel was seen a signal, “Water, water; we die of thirst!” The answer from the friendly vessel at once came back, “Cast down your bucket where you are.” A second time the signal, “Water, water; Send us water!” ran up from the distressed vessel, and was answered, “Cast down your bucket where you are.” And a third and fourth signal for water was answered, “Cast down your bucket where you are.” The captain of the distressed vessel, at last heeding the injunction, cast down his bucket, and it came up full of fresh sparkling water from the mouth of the Amazon river.
即使是像广州这样建在潮汐河流和运河交汇处的大城市，像汉口这样坐落在世界最大河流之一岸边的城市，以及现代的上海、横滨或东京，也不允许这种浪费。对他们来说，这种做法意味着种族自杀，他们抵制这种诱惑太久了，以至于它已经不复存在。
Not even in great cities like Canton, built in the meshes of tideswept rivers and canals; like Hankow on the banks of one of the largest rivers in the world; nor yet in modern Shanghai, Yokohama or Tokyo, is such waste permitted. To them such a practice has meant race suicide and they have resisted the temptation so long that it has ceased to exist.
上海卫生官员阿瑟·斯坦利博士在其 1899 年的年度报告中将此问题视为市政问题，他写道：
Dr. Arthur Stanley, Health officer of the city of Shanghai, in his annual report for 1899, considering this subject as a municipal problem, wrote:
关于东西方卫生标准对上海卫生的影响，可以说，如果国民寿命的延长表明卫生条件良好，那么中国人是一个值得所有关注公共卫生的人学习的民族。即使没有总登记官的报告，我们也能清楚地看到，中国的出生率肯定远远超过死亡率，而且在中华民族存在的三四千年间，平均而言，出生率一直高于死亡率。与中世纪的英国相比，中国人的卫生标准似乎更具优势。主要问题是卫生设施的首要任务是日复一日地清洁住所，如果这样做能带来利润，那就更好了。超文明的西方人精心设计焚烧垃圾的焚烧炉，损失惨重，并将污水排入大海，而中国人则将两者都用作肥料。他们一心想着农业的神圣职责，从不浪费任何资源。事实上，最近的细菌研究表明，粪便和生活垃圾的最佳处理方式是将它们送回干净的土壤，在那里进行自然净化。我认为，在上海目前的条件下，是否销毁垃圾的问题可以得到明确的否定回答。而采用水运系统处理污水并将其排入河流（水源来源），则无异于卫生自杀。因此，最好还是利用中国卫生学中值得尊重的优秀传统，因为它是公元前一千多年演变的产物。
“Regarding the bearing on the sanitation of Shanghai of the relationship between Eastern and Western hygiene, it may be said, that if prolonged national life is indicative of sound sanitation, the Chinese are a race worthy of study by all who concern themselves with Public Health. Even without the returns of a Registrar-General it is evident that in China the birth rate must very considerably exceed the death rate, and have done so in an average way during the three or four thousand years that the Chinese nation has existed. Chinese hygiene, when compared with medieval English, appears to advantage. The main problem of sanitation is to cleanse the dwelling day by day, and if this can be done at a profit so much the better. While the ultracivilized Western elaborates destructors for burning garbage at a financial loss and turns sewage into the sea, the Chinaman uses both for manure. He wastes nothing while the sacred duty of agriculture is uppermost in his mind. And in reality recent bacterial work has shown that faecal matter and house refuse are best destroyed by returning them to clean soil, where natural purification takes place. The question of destroying garbage can, I think, under present conditions in Shanghai, be answered in a decided negative. While to adopt the water-carriage system for sewage and turn it into the river, whence the water supply is derived, would be an act of sanitary suicide. It is best, therefore, to make use of what is good in Chinese hygiene, which demands respect, being, as it is, the product of an evolution extending from more than a thousand years before the Christian era.”
图 109——人类排泄物的容器。
Fig. 109.—Receptacles for human waste.
中国主要使用如图109所示的炻器容器来储存此类垃圾，这些容器是烧制坚硬、上釉的陶土瓮，容量从500磅到1000磅不等。日本则更常用如图110所示的水泥衬砌的封闭式坑。
The storage of such waste in China is largely in stone-ware receptacles such as are seen in Fig. 109, which are hard-burned, glazed terra-cotta urns, having capacities ranging from 500 to 1000 pounds. Japan more often uses sheltered cement-lined pits such as are seen in Fig. 110.
在三个国家，最常见的是运送到田里某种形式的桶，如图111所示，一对桶由扁担支撑，摆动着。在田地或花园里施药时，使用长柄勺，如图112所示。
In the three countries the carrying to the fields is oftenest in some form of pail, as seen in Fig. 111, a pair of which are borne swinging from the carrying pole. In applying the liquid to the field or garden the long handle dipper is used, seen in Fig. 112.
我们开始节俭地处理家畜的粪便，但在这方面我们比不上中国、韩国和日本。中国人经常在乡村和商队道路沿途寻找和收集粪便。我们经常在城市街道上行走，看到人们迅速而热情地收集这些粪便，并小心地储存在确保不会因浸出或不利发酵而损失的条件下。在一些我们参观过的桑园里，人们仔细地将树干周围的泥土锄到直径六到八英尺的圆圈内，深度达到三四英寸，然后将蚕的粪便、蜕皮以及蚕吃完后留下的叶子和茎干碎片放在这些地方。这些废物必须得到妥善处理。它们会立即返回果园。而是从叶子中产生的丝；这样就避免了不必要的损失，并且这些材料可以立即用于催生下一批叶子。
We are beginning to husband with some economy the waste from our domestic animals but in this we do not approach that of China, Korea and Japan. People in China regularly search for and collect droppings along the country and caravan roads. Repeatedly, when walking through city streets, we observed such materials quickly and apparently eagerly gathered, to be carefully stored under conditions which ensure small loss from either leaching or unfavorable fermentation. In some mulberry orchards visited the earth had been carefully hoed back about the trunks of trees to a depth of three or four inches from a circle having a diameter of six to eight feet, and upon these areas were placed the droppings of silkworms, the moulted skins, together with the bits of leaves and stem left after feeding. Some disposition of such waste must be made. They return at once to the orchard all but the silk produced from the leaves; unnecessary loss is thus avoided and the material enters at once the service of forcing the next crop of leaves.
图 110.—日本用于储存液体肥料的水泥衬砌的避难坑。
Fig. 110.—Japanese sheltered cement-lined storage pits for liquid manure.
在嘉兴附近的吴太太的农场里，我们正研究两头牛拉动的两台灌溉泵的工作原理，它们抽水灌溉她25英亩的稻田，准备插秧。我们惊讶地发现，负责照看牲畜的男孩的职责之一是用一个六夸脱的竹柄木勺，六英尺长，将所有粪便收集起来，以免它们落到地上，然后把它们转移到专门为此准备的容器里。我们刚开始意识到节俭的做法会走到什么程度，但男孩的脸上没有任何恼怒的表情。他理所当然地完成了这项任务，我们仔细想了想，觉得没有理由不这样做。事实上，唯一的正确的方向正在被采取。如果没有征税，情况会更糟。这让我们有可能获得更多的稻米。这小伙子身上正在形成一种坚实的品质，这意味着他成长中的人会变得节俭，国家也会因此而延续下去。
On the farm of Mrs. Wu, near Kashing, while studying the operation of two irrigation pumps driven by two cows, lifting water to flood her twenty-five acres of rice field preparatory to transplanting, we were surprised to observe that one of the duties of the lad who had charge of the animals was to use a six-quart wooden dipper with a bamboo handle six feet long to collect all excreta, before they fell upon the ground, and transfer them to a receptacle provided for the purpose. There came a flash of resentment that such a task was set for the lad, for we were only beginning to realize to what lengths the practice of economy may go, but there was nothing irksome suggested in the boy’s face. He performed the duty as a matter of course and as we thought it through there was no reason why it should have been otherwise. In fact, the only right course was being taken. Conditions would have been worse if the collection had not been made. It made possible more rice. Character of substantial quality was building in the lad which meant thrift in the growing man and continued life for the nation.
图 111——六个用于将液体肥料分发到田地里的桶。
Fig. 111.—Six carrying pails such as are used in distributing liquid manure to the fields.
我们曾提到，旅途中随处可见数量极少的苍蝇，但直到旅程即将结束，我们才意识到其重要性。事实上，不知何故，在我们从横滨返回美国的轮船上，苍蝇在头两天比旅途中任何时候都多。可以预见，对每一件废弃物（一旦变成废弃物）进行持续的警惕性，并将其放置在有用的地方，必定会极大地破坏这些滋生地。或许这些国家一直非常注重其做法的卫生性，其废物处理系统演变的许多阶段都受到清晰的卫生需求理念的支配和严格遵循。
We have adverted to the very small number of flies observed anywhere in the course of our travel, but its significance we did not realize until near the end of our stay. Indeed, for some reason, flies were more in evidence during the first two days on the steamship, out from Yokohama on our return trip to America, than at any time before on our journey. It is to be expected that the eternal vigilance which seizes every waste, once it has become such, putting it in places of usefulness, must contribute much toward the destruction of breeding places, and it may be these nations have been mindful of the wholesomeness of their practice and that many phases of the evolution of their waste disposal system have been dictated by and held fast to through a clear conception of sanitary needs.
图 112——使用长柄勺从桶中舀出液体肥料。
Fig. 112.—Applying of liquid manure from carrying pails, using the long-handle dipper.
这些旧世界的农民在利用废弃物方面展现出非凡的智慧和高超的技艺。图113就是众多值得一提的例子之一。一个扛着粪桶在田里走来走去的男人回来后告诉我们，他家有20个孩子要养活；从他这片半英亩土地的菜园里，他通常能卖出400美元墨西哥比索——172美元黄金。他种的是黄瓜，两排成一排，行距30英寸，两排之间间隔24英寸。每排的株距为8到10英寸。他刚刚卖掉了最后一批绿植，这些绿植占据了在坚固耐用、轻便且易于拆卸的棚架下可见的黄瓜行之间的空隙。5月28日，黄瓜藤开始生长，所以换茬工作一刻也没有耽误。相反，这个人通过重叠种植，将作物的生长季延长了一个月，而且棚架使他能够为更多这种植物提供养分，超过了地面上种植藤蔓的空间。凭借着聪明才智和辛勤劳动，他使自己种植的半英亩黄瓜面积相当于两英亩以上的面积。他把藤蔓完全从地里拔出来；留出两英尺宽的通行空间，方便他行走；他还确保了可以在每株植物的根部附近锄地和施肥。用美国田间方法种植的四英亩黄瓜产量不会比这个人的一英亩黄瓜高，而且他在同一季节还种植了另外两种作物。两者之间的差异与其说是肌肉活动的差异，不如说是大脑灰质的警觉性和效率的差异。他仔细观察并处理每一株植物，他松土，使液体肥料能够直接滴落到地表以下，触及到活跃的根系。如果雨水稀少，土壤干燥，他可能会使用十倍水比两倍粪肥，并非为了浇水，而是为了确保肥料渗透得足够深。如果天气阴雨，土壤过湿，则施肥浓度会更高，并非为了减轻负担，而是为了避免因淋溶和过度饱和而造成的浪费。在作物密集生长期间，他从不过度施肥。深思熟虑，事后诸葛亮，专注于手头的工作是这些人的特点。我们不记得见过有人在工作时吸烟。他们喜欢吸烟，但更喜欢全神贯注地吸烟，这样可以物有所值。
Much intelligence and the highest skill are exhibited by these old-world farmers in the use of their wastes. In Fig. 113 is one of many examples which might be cited. The man walking down the row with his manure pails swinging from his shoulders informed us on his return that in his household there were twenty to be fed; that from this garden of half an acre of land he usually sold a product bringing in $400, Mexican,—$172, gold. The crop was cucumbers in groups of two rows thirty inches apart and twenty-four inches between the groups. The plants were eight to ten inches apart in the row. He had just marketed the last of a crop of greens which occupied the space between the rows of cucumbers seen under the strong, durable, light and very readily removable trellises. On May 28 the vines were beginning to run, so not a minute had been lost in the change of crop. On the contrary this man had added a month to his growing season by over-lapping his crops, and the trellises enabled him to feed more plants of this type than there was room for vines on the ground. With ingenuity and much labor he had made his half acre for cucumbers equivalent to more than two. He had removed the vines entirely from the ground; had provided a travel space two feet wide, down which he was walking, and he had made it possible to work about the roots of every plant for the purpose of hoeing and feeding. Four acres of cucumbers handled by American field methods would not yield more than this man’s one, and he grows besides two other crops the same season. The difference is not so much in activity of muscle as it is in alertness and efficiency of the grey matter of the brain. He sees and treats each plant individually, he loosens the ground so that his liquid manure drops immediately beneath the surface within reach of the active roots. If the rainfall has been scanty and the soil is dry he may use ten of water to two of night soil, not to supply water but to make certain sufficiently deep penetration. If the weather is rainy and the soil over wet, the food is applied more concentrated, not to lighten the burden but to avoid waste by leaching and over saturation. While ever crowding growth he never overfeeds. Forethought, after-thought and the mind focussed on the work in hand are characteristic of these people. We do not recall to have seen a man smoking while at work. They enjoy smoking, but prefer to do this also with the attention undivided and thus get more for their money.
图 113——产量是脑力、体力和利用废物的产物。
Fig. 113.—Where the yield is the product of brain, brawn and utilized waste.
五月初的另一天，我们在田野里散步，没有翻译。我们站了半个小时，看着一位老园丁用他的铲子翻土，就像图26所示，他祖先的坟墓占据了这片土地的一部分。蚯蚓数量极其丰富，周长和普通铅笔差不多，不伸展时，长度是铅笔的三分之二，颜色明显是绿色。几乎每一次铲动都会露出两到五条蚯蚓，但据我们观察，我们仔细观察了这位老园丁如何碾碎土壤，他既没有伤到蚯蚓，也没有留下任何蚯蚓。虽然他似乎没有刻意避免伤害蚯蚓，也没有用土覆盖它们，而且我们无法与他交谈，但我们确信，他的举动一直在防止蚯蚓受伤。蚯蚓无疑深深地在他的花园里翻动，使得地表以下的空气能够更自由地循环。它们数量众多，说明土壤中有机质含量丰富。蚯蚓啃食土壤，将土壤带入它们的身体，每年的劳动量非常巨大。在为种植水稻而进行水浸的田地里，这些蚯蚓被迫大量浮出水面，大群鸭子被引到这些田地里以它们为食。
On another date earlier in May we were walking in the fields without an interpreter. For half an hour we stood watching an old gardener fitting the soil with his spading hoe in the manner seen in Fig. 26, where the graves of his ancestors occupy a part of the land. Angleworms were extremely numerous, as large around as an ordinary lead pencil and, when not extended, two-thirds as long, decidedly greenish in color. Nearly every stroke of the spade exposed two to five of these worms but so far as we observed, and we watched the man closely, pulverizing the soil, he neither injured nor left uncovered a single worm. While he seemed to make no effort to avoid injuring them or to cover them with earth, and while we could not talk with him, we are convinced that his action was continually guarded against injuring the worms. They certainly were subsoiling his garden deeply and making possible a freer circulation of air far below the surface. Their great abundance proved a high content of organic matter present in the soil and, as the worms ate their way through it, passing the soil through their bodies, the yearly volume of work done by them was very great. In the fields flooded preparatory to fitting them for rice these worms are forced to the surface in enormous numbers and large flocks of ducks are taken to such fields to feed upon them.
另一块田里，一茬大麦即将成熟。相邻的一块地即将被整修和种植。倾斜的大麦穗挡住了路。一棵也别丢，每一寸土地都必须得到充分利用。边缘上十六英寸宽的谷物被抓成一把把，并巧妙地捆扎起来，每把谷物都用一根未拔的大麦茎捆扎，而不会弄断稻草，这样即使是那一头的谷物也能填满并与其他谷物一起收集，而捆扎使所有稻草倾斜，不妨碍，并允许最后一英寸的裸露地面被安装而不会损坏谷物。
In another field a crop of barley was nearing maturity. An adjacent strip of land was to be fitted and planted. The leaning barley heads were in the way. Not one must be lost and every inch of ground must be put to use. The grain along the margin, for a breadth of sixteen inches, had been gathered into handfuls and skillfully tied, each with an unpulled barley stem, without breaking the straw, thus permitting even the grains in that head to fill and be gathered with the rest, while the tying set all straws well aslant, out of the way, and permitted the last inch of naked ground to be fitted without injuring the grain.
还有一个例子，一个人种植爱尔兰土豆，当时土豆还很小，就把它卖给了市场。他给土壤施肥；如果雨水不及时充足，他会浇水，并给植株施肥。他把土豆种植成行距只有十二到十四英寸的行，每八英寸一排，中间有一个小坡。土豆藤蔓茁壮挺拔，十四英寸高，像修剪整齐的树篱一样整齐。叶子和茎秆饱满，呈现出深绿色，像上等小公牛一样光亮。土豆和植株靠得很近，以至于叶子可以遮挡照射在土豆地每一平方英寸的阳光。没有土豆甲虫，我们也没有看到任何受损的迹象，但园丁正用知更鸟般的眼睛扫视着这片土豆地。他发现一根茎上的叶子开始轻微下垂；他设法解决了这个问题，拿来一条地老虎、一个弹珠大小的幼块茎和一根被切掉一半的茎放在我们手里。因为我们明显感兴趣，他愿意牺牲这一切。但两个相识的朋友却因言语不通而疏远了。
In still another instance a man was growing Irish potatoes to market when yet small. He had enriched his soil; he would apply water if the rains were not timely and sufficient, and had fed the plants. He had planted in rows only twelve to fourteen inches apart with a hill every eight inches in the row. The vines stood strong, straight, fourteen inches high and as even as a trimmed hedge. The leaves and stems were turgid, the deepest green and as prime and glossy as a prize steer. So close were the plants that there was leaf surface to intercept the sunshine falling on every square inch of the patch. There were no potato beetles and we saw no signs of injury but the gardener was scanning the patch with the eye of a robin. He spied the slightest first drooping of leaves in a stem; went after the difficulty and brought and placed in our hand a cutworm, a young tuber the size of a marble and a stem cut half off, which he was willing to sacrifice because of our evident interest. But the two friends who had met were held apart by the babel of tongues.
没有什么比无法充分理解更让世界付出代价，树敌如此之多，友谊的建立也如此受阻；因此，带来世界和平的鸽子必须乘着共同语言的翅膀飞翔，而东方那颗璀璨的明星便是世界贸易，它沿着迅速发展的铁路和轮船航线冉冉升起，由电子通讯引领和指引。世界贸易必然带来相互信任和友谊，这需要充分理解，从而形成共同的语言。如此一来，世界和平将得到永久的保障。它必然会到来，而且比我们想象的要快。一旦我们认真追求这一理想目标，三代孩子在公立学校里学习世界语言和母语，随着父母和祖父母的去世，将会带来改变。
Nothing is costing the world more; has made so many enemies, and has so much hindered the forming of friendships as the inability to fully understand; hence the dove that brings world peace must fly on the wings of a common language, and the bright star in the east is world commerce, rising on rapidly developing railway and steamship lines, heralded and directed by electric communication. With world commerce must come mutual confidence and friendship requiring a full understanding and therefore a common tongue. Then world peace will be permanently assured. It is coming inevitably and faster than we think. Once this desired end is seriously sought, the carrying of three generations of children through the public schools where the world language is taught together with the mother tongue, and the passing of the parents and grand-parents, would effect the change.
关于这些远东人，值得关注的一点是，农民们拥有清晰而强大的有效思维，他们过去和现在都用自己有限土地上的产品养活了密集的人口。这一点进一步体现在，人们普遍广泛地使用从耕地和邻近山地生长的植物灰烬来作为燃料。
The important point regarding these Far East people, to which attention should be directed, is that effective thinking, clear and strong, prevails among the farmers who have fed and are still feeding the dense populations from the products of their limited areas. This is further indicated in the universal and extensive use of plant ashes derived from fuel grown upon cultivated fields and upon the adjacent hill and mountain lands.
我们无法获得这些国家每年燃料消耗量以及用作肥料的灰烬量的确切数据，但一考德（cod）干橡木重约3500磅，而每户家庭和制造业使用的燃料重量肯定超过两考德（cod）。日本平均每户有5.563人。如果我们只计算人均燃料消耗量为1300磅，那么日本的燃料消耗量将达到3120万吨。鉴于这些国家使用的燃料中很大一部分要么是农作物茎秆（平均灰分含量为5%），要么是树枝甚至树叶（例如松枝燃料），因此4.5%的灰分含量可以算作一个合理的估计。以此为基础，磷含量为 0.5%，钾含量为 5%，那么日本每年的燃料灰将达到 1,404,000 吨，其中含有 7,020 吨磷和 70,200 吨钾，再加上 400,000 多吨石灰石，每年返回到不到 21,321 平方英里的耕地。
We were unable to secure exact data regarding the amount of fuel burned annually in these countries, and of ashes used as fertilizer, but a cord of dry oak wood weighs about 3500 pounds, and the weight of fuel used in the home and in manufactures must exceed that of two cords per household. Japan has an average of 5.563 people per family. If we allow but 1300 pounds of fuel per capita, Japan’s consumption would be 31,200,000 tons. In view of the fact that a very large share of the fuel used in these countries is either agricultural plant stems, with an average ash content of 5 per cent, or the twigs and even leaves of trees, as in the case of pine bough fuel, 4.5 per cent of ash may be taken as a fair estimate. On this basis, and with a content of phosphorus equal to .5 per cent, and of potassium equal to 5 per cent, the fuel ash for Japan would amount to 1,404,000 tons annually, carrying 7020 tons of phosphorus and 70,200 tons of potassium, together with more than 400,000 tons of limestone, which is returned annually to less than 21,321 square miles of cultivated land.
在中国，人口超过四亿，同样的燃料消耗速度将使返回农田的磷和钾达到日本的八倍以上。根据这些计算，日本每年从燃料浪费中节省的磷相当于超过46800吨纯度为75%的磷矿，相当于每英亩约7磅。如果说，即使加上钾肥和石灰石，这个数量看起来也只是微不足道的生育力提升，那么美国人必须记住，即使如此，这些人也感到不得不做出节约。
In China, with her more than four hundred millions of people, a similar rate of fuel consumption would make the phosphorus and potassium returned to her fields more than eight times the amounts computed for Japan. On the basis of these statements Japan’s annual saving of phosphorus from the waste of her fuel would be equivalent to more than 46,800 tons of rock phosphate having a purity of 75 per cent, or in the neighborhood of seven pounds per acre. If this amount, even with the potash and limestone added, appears like a trifling addition of fertility it is important for Americans to remember that even if this is so, these people have felt compelled to make the saving.
图 114——日本农民将绿色牧草踩入水稻行间的水和泥中作为肥料。
Fig. 114.—Japanese farmer tramping green herbage for fertilizer into the water and mud between rows of rice.
在将可溶性钾返回耕地的问题上，日本将使用相当于不少于 156,600 吨纯硫酸钾的灰烬，相当于每英亩 23 磅；而每年这样施用的碳酸钙将达到每英亩约 62 磅。
In the matter of returning soluble potassium to the cultivated fields Japan would be applying with her ashes the equivalent of no less than 156,600 tons of pure potassium sulphate, equal to 23 pounds per acre; while the lime carbonate so applied annually would be some 62 pounds per acre.
除了长期以来通过燃料灰烬为耕地提供植物养分的林地外，还有大片土地提供绿肥和堆肥。这些土地主要为山地，约占耕地面积的20%。田地，主要生长着草本植物。其中约有2,552,741英亩的土地每季可收割三次，1903年平均每英亩产量为7980磅。第一次收割的山地草本植物主要用作稻田的绿肥，它们被踩入稻田行间的泥土中，如图114所示。
In addition to the forest lands, which have long been made to contribute plant food to the cultivated fields through fuel ashes, there are large areas which contribute green manure and compost material. These are chiefly hill lands, aggregating some twenty per cent of the cultivated fields, which bear mostly herbaceous growth. Some 2,552,741 acres of these lands may be cut over three times each season, yielding, in 1903, an average of 7980 pounds per acre. The first cutting of this hill herbage is mainly used on the rice fields as green manure, it being tramped into the mud between the rows after the manner seen in Fig. 114.
这个人带着篮子和镰刀，到处采集绿色牧草，然后把它们带到稻田里。那是七月的一天，天气极其闷热。我们看到他正趟过齐膝深的水，小心翼翼地把采集的牧草放在稻田的两行交替的行间，一把放在一个地方，草尖重叠。完成后，他采取了图中所示的姿势，把牧草聚成紧实的一捆，用脚把它压在水面下。两只手把柔软的泥土抹平在草地上，把相邻两座小山上被翻动的稻苗扶正。就这样，他一脚接一脚，向前一杆，后面的牧草被淹没，直到到达最后一捆，牧草沿着仅一英尺间隔的两行稻田行走，每行九到十英寸就有一座小山，双手抓住稻田里的每一个小山，把它们拖过。
This man had been with basket and sickle to gather green herbage wherever he could and had brought it to his rice paddy. The day in July was extremely sultry. We came upon him wading in the water half way to his knees, carefully laying the herbage he had gathered between alternate rows of his rice, one handful in a place, with tips overlapping. This done he took the attitude seen in the illustration and, gathering the materials into a compact bunch, pressed it beneath the surface with his foot. The two hands smoothed the soft mud over the grass and righted the disturbed spears of rice in the two adjacent hills. Thus, foot following foot, one bare length ahead, the succeeding bunches of herbage were submerged until the last had been reached, following between alternate rows only a foot apart, there being a hill every nine to ten inches in the row and the hands grasping and being drawn over every one in the paddy.
他租地，每担稻米付四十坎，通常产量是八十坎。也就是每英亩四十四蒲式耳，每蒲式耳六十磅。在欠收的季节，他的产量可能会减少，但租金仍然会是每担四十坎，除非他已经尽了一切合理的努力来确保收成。美国人很难理解，即使是出于对家庭的爱，人的意志力怎么可能强迫自己承担这样的任务。
He was renting the land, paying therefor forty kan of rice per tan, and his usual yield was eighty kan. This is forty-four bushels of sixty pounds per acre. In unfavorable seasons his yield might be less but still his rent would be forty kan per tan unless it was clear that he had done all that could reasonably be expected of him in securing the crop. It is difficult for Americans to understand how it is possible for the will of man, even when spurred by the love of home and family, to hold flesh to tasks like these.
日本玄屋地里第二、三次收割的牧草，用于制作秋季或次年春季在旱地上施肥的堆肥。有些这类土地是牧场，但从山上生长和采集的约10,185,500吨绿色牧草，其大部分有机质和灰烬都用于肥沃耕地。在日本，这些野生生长区是附近村庄的公共用地，人们可以自由进入其中收割牧草。可以设定收割时间，并对可以带走的数量进行限制，具体方法如图115所示。人们都很清楚，这种不断地从山地上砍伐和移除植被而不进行任何回报的行为会耗尽土壤，并减少他们能够获得的绿色牧草数量。
The second and third cuttings of herbage from the genya lands in Japan are used for the preparation of compost applied on the dry-land fields in the fall or in the spring of the following season. Some of these lands are pastured, but approximately 10,185,500 tons of green herbage grown and gathered from the hills contributes much of its organic matter and all of its ash to enrich the cultivated fields. Such wild growth areas in Japan are the commons of the near by villages, to which the people are freely admitted for the purpose of cutting the herbage. A fixed time may be set for cutting and a limit placed upon the amount which may be carried away, which is done in the manner seen in Fig. 115. It is well recognized by the people that this constant cutting and removal of growth from the hill lands, with no return, depletes the soils and reduces the amount of green herbage they are able to secure.
图115——父亲和孩子们从耕地回来，带着用作绿肥或堆肥的牧草。女儿提着茶壶，为他们提供安全卫生的饮料。
Fig. 115.—Father and children returning from genya lands with herbage for use as green manure or for making compost. The daughter carries the tea kettle to supply their safe, sanitary drink.
感谢东京帝国农业实验站大久原博士的慷慨帮助，我们能够请给出六月份用于绿肥的五种最常见野生植物的绿叶和嫩茎的平均成分。每1000磅绿叶和嫩茎的平均成分为：水562.18磅；有机质382.68磅；灰分55.14磅；氮4.78磅；钾2.407磅；磷0.34磅。基于此成分，总产量为10,185,500吨，每年可从耕地中施用3463吨磷和24,516吨钾。
Through the kindness of Dr. Daikuhara of the Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station at Tokyo we are able to give the average composition of the green leaves and young stems of five of the most common wild species of plants cut for green manure in June. In each 1000 pounds the amount of water is 562.18 pounds; of organic matter, 382.68 pounds; of ash, 55.14 pounds; nitrogen, 4.78 pounds; potassium, 2.407 pounds, and phosphorus, .34 pound. On the basis of this composition and an aggregate yield of 10,185,500 tons, there would be annually applied to the cultivated fields 3463 tons of phosphorus and 24,516 tons of potassium derived from the genya lands.
除此之外，山区和根亚地的径流也大量用于稻田灌溉，一些县每年灌溉的灌溉水深超过16英寸（约40厘米）。如果这些水的成分与北美河水相同，那么每年向三个主要岛屿的稻田灌溉12英寸（约15厘米）的水，将贡献至少1200吨磷和19000吨钾。
In addition to this the run-off from both the mountain and the genya lands is largely used upon the rice fields, more than sixteen inches of water being applied annually to them in some prefectures. If such waters have the composition of river waters in North America, twelve inches of water applied to the rice fields of the three main islands would contribute no less than 1200 tons of phosphorus and 19,000 tons of potassium annually.
农商部川口博士告诉我们，1908年，日本农民用牛、马、猪和家禽的粪便，混合牧草、稻草和其他类似废物，以及沟渠和水渠中的土壤、草皮或淤泥，配制并施用于田地的堆肥共计22,812,787吨。这些堆肥的用量足以为南部三个主要岛屿每英亩耕地施用1.78吨。
Dr. Kawaguchi, of the National Department of Agriculture and Commerce, informed us that in 1908 Japanese farmers prepared and applied to their fields 22,812,787 tons of compost manufactured from the wastes of cattle, horses, swine and poultry, combined with herbage, straw and other similar wastes and with soil, sod or mud from ditches and canals. The amount of this compost is sufficient to apply 1.78 tons per acre of cultivated land of the southern three main islands.
根据奈良实验站获得的数据，该站制备的堆肥成分显示，每2000磅（约900公斤）含有550磅（约220公斤）有机物、15.6磅（约7.7公斤）氮、8.3磅（约3.7公斤）钾和5.24磅（约2.7公斤）磷。以此计算，2280万吨堆肥将含有59700吨磷和94600吨钾。图116展示了堆肥房的建造方式，该图复制自奈良实验站发给农民的一份大型通告。图117展示了奈良实验站一座堆肥房的外观。
From data obtained at the Nara Experiment Station, the composition of compost as there prepared shows it to contain, in each 2000 pounds, 550 pounds of organic matter; 15.6 pounds of nitrogen; 8.3 pounds of potassium, and 5.24 pounds of phosphorus. On this basis 22,800,000 tons of compost will carry 59,700 tons of phosphorus and 94,600 tons of potassium. The construction of compost houses is illustrated in Fig. 116, reproduced from a large circular sent to farmers from the Nara Experiment Station, and an exterior of one at the Nara Station is given in Fig. 117.
这个堆肥房的设计使用面积为两英亩半。它的地板尺寸为十二英尺乘十八英尺，用粘土、石灰和沙子混合而成，具有防水功能。墙壁是泥土，厚度为一英尺，屋顶铺着稻草。它的容量为十六到二十吨，相当于60日元或30美元的现金价值。在准备堆肥时，每天都会把材料运过来，铺在堆肥地板的一侧，直到堆肥堆达到五英尺高。在堆肥一英尺深并压实后，在表面铺上1.2英寸厚的土壤或泥浆，重复此过程，直到堆肥堆完全达到高度。加水量要足以保持整个地板饱和，以保持温度低于人体温度。堆肥完成后，夏季可放置五周，冬季可放置七周，然后将其翻过来，转移到房屋的另一侧。
This compost house is designed to serve two and a half acres. Its floor is twelve by eighteen feet, rendered watertight by a mixture of clay, lime and sand. The walls are of earth, one foot thick, and the roof is thatched with straw. Its capacity is sixteen to twenty tons, having a cash value of 60 yen, or $30. In preparing the stack, materials are brought daily and spread over one side of the compost floor until the pile has attained a hight of five feet. After one foot in depth has been laid and firmed, 1.2 inches of soil or mud is spread over the surface and the process repeated until full hight has been attained. Water is added sufficient to keep the whole saturated and to maintain the temperature below that of the body. After the compost stacks have been completed they are permitted to stand five weeks in summer, seven weeks in winter, when they are forked over and transferred to the opposite side of the house.
图 116.—奈良实验站发布的图表部分，展示了堆肥房的建造；上部显示立面图；中部为横截面图，下部为平面图。
Fig. 116.—Section of chart issued by the Nara Experiment Station, illustrating construction of compost house; upper section shows elevation; middle portion is a cross section and the lower shows floor plan.
如果我们粗略地计算一下迄今为止日本农民每年在其两万或两万一千平方英里耕地上施用或返还的氮、磷和钾的总量，那么氮、磷和钾的总量分别为385,214吨、91,656吨和255,778吨。这些数值只是近似值，并不包括长期以来大量使用的鱼肥。它们也不包括他们长期、广泛、持续种植大豆和其他豆科植物而直接从大气中吸收的大量氮。事实上，从1903年到1906年，种植第二茬豆科绿肥的稻田平均面积占稻田总面积的6.8%，总面积达11,000平方英里。1906年，超过18%的旱地也种植了豆科作物。这些油田总面积在 9,000 至 10,000 平方英里之间。
If we state in round numbers the total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium thus far enumerated which Japanese farmers apply or return annually to their twenty or twenty-one thousand square miles of cultivated fields, the case stands 385,214 tons of nitrogen, 91,656 tons of phosphorus and 255,778 tons of potassium. These values are only approximations and do not include the large volume and variety of fertilizers prepared from fish, which have long been used. Neither do they include the very large amount of nitrogen derived directly from the atmosphere through their long, extensive and persistent cultivation of soy beans and other legumes. Indeed, from 1903 to 1906 the average area of paddy field upon which was grown a second crop of green manure in the form of some legume was 6.8 per cent of the total area of such fields aggregating 11,000 square miles. In 1906 over 18 per cent of the upland fields also produced some leguminous crop, these fields aggregating between 9,000 and 10,000 square miles.
图 117.—奈良实验站堆肥房外观。
Fig. 117.—Exterior view of compost house at Nara Experiment Station.
虽然上述数值（表示日本耕地每年施用的氮、磷、钾总量）可能相对于某些来源略高，但毫无疑问，日本农民每年在田地中施用的这三种植物养分比计算值要多。上述数值足以为21,321平方英里的耕地（每英亩）提供每年不少于56磅氮、13磅磷和37磅钾的施用量。或者，如果我们忽略北部大岛北海道，该岛的农业仍处于起步阶段，缺乏旧式农田的集约化耕作，则每英亩土地平均施用 60 磅氮、14 磅磷和 40 磅钾就足够了，然而 1000 磅小麦成熟时，覆盖在谷物和秸秆上的无水物质只会从土壤中带走 13.9 磅氮、2.3 磅磷和 8.4 磅钾，由此可以计算出，添加的 60 磅氮足以使每英亩小麦产量达到 31 蒲式耳；磷足够使每英亩小麦产量达到 44 蒲式耳，钾足够使每英亩小麦产量达到 35 蒲式耳。
While the values which have been given above, expressing the sum total of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium applied annually to the cultivated fields of Japan may be somewhat too high for some of the sources named, there is little doubt that Japanese farmers apply to their fields more of these three plant food elements annually than has been computed. The amounts which have been given are sufficient to provide annually, for each acre of the 21,321 square miles of cultivated land, an application of not less than 56 pounds of nitrogen, 13 pounds of phosphorus and 37 pounds of potassium. Or, if we omit the large northern island of Hokkaido, still new in its agriculture and lacking the intensive practices of the older farm land, the quantities are sufficient for a mean application of 60, 14 and 40 pounds respectively of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium per acre, and yet the maturing of 1000 pounds of wheat crop, covering grain and straw as water-free substance, removes from the soil but 13.9 pounds of nitrogen, 2.3 pounds of phosphorus and 8.4 pounds of potassium, from which it may be Computed that the 60 pounds of nitrogen added is sufficient for a crop yielding 31 bushels of wheat; the phosphorus is sufficient for a crop of 44 bushels, and the potassium for a crop of 35 bushels per acre.
霍普金斯博士在他最近发表的关于“土壤肥力和永久农业”的宝贵著作第154页上提供了一个表格，我们从中摘录了以下数据：
Dr. Hopkins, in his recent valuable work on “Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture” gives, on page 154, a table from which we abstract the following data:
每年每英亩可去除的氮、磷和钾的大约数量
APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM REMOVABLE PER ACRE ANNUALLY BY
为了进行比较，我们在此表中添加了水稻产量，并将土豆产量从每英亩三百蒲式耳增加到四百蒲式耳。因为，尽管由于缺乏足够的植物养分或水分，通常产量会低得多，但只要管理得当，土豆产量与上述所有产量一样，在良好的管理和适宜的季节条件下，实现这一产量是完全可行的。根据此表，假设成熟谷物含水量为11%，秸秆含水量为15%，土豆含水量为79%，甜菜含水量为87%，则我们计算出每年1000磅作物可吸收的三种植物养分元素的量，并将其列于下表。
We have inserted in this table, for comparison, the crop of rice, and have increased the crop of potatoes from three hundred bushels to four hundred bushels per acre, because such a yield, like all of those named, is quite practicable under good management and favorable seasons, notwithstanding the fact that much smaller yields are generally attained through lack of sufficient plant food or water. From this table, assuming that a crop of matured grain contains 11 per cent of water and the straw 15 per cent, while potatoes contain 79 per cent and beets 87 per cent, the amounts of the three plant food elements removable annually by 1000 pounds of crop have been calculated and stated in the next table.
每年每 1,0000 磅干作物物质可去除的氮、磷和钾的近似量。
APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM REMOVABLE ANNUALLY PER 1,0000 POUNDS OF DRY CROP SUBSTANCE.
从日本耕地每年施用的氮、磷、钾的量以及这两个表格的数据可以看出，这些人现在（或许很久以前）在每次耕作中施用的这三种植物养分，与作物生长带走的养分相当。如果日本的情况如此，那么中国也一定如此。此外，美国的农业实践中没有任何迹象表明我们最终不会被迫效仿。
From the amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium applied annually to the cultivated fields of Japan and from the data in these two tables it may be readily seen that these people are now and probably long have been applying quite as much of these three plant food elements to their fields with each planting as are removed with the crop, and if this is true in Japan it must also be true in China. Moreover there is nothing in American agricultural practice which indicates that we shall not ultimately be compelled to do likewise.
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*布克·T·华盛顿，亚特兰大地址。
* Booker T. Washington, Atlanta address.
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5 月 15 日，我们乘坐沿海轮船离开上海，前往北边约 300 英里的山东省青岛，我们的目的是了解当地的耕作和施肥方法，这些方法的相应阶段将在以后的季节里进行。
On May 15th we left Shanghai by one of the coastwise steamers for Tsingtao, some three hundred miles farther north, in the Shantung Province, our object being to keep in touch with methods of tillage and fertilization, corresponding phases of which would occur later in the season there.
山东省位于北卡罗来纳州和肯塔基州的纬度之间，或者说位于旧金山和洛杉矶之间。其面积近56000平方英里，与威斯康星州面积相当。其中耕地不到一半，但目前人口超过3800万。纽约州目前的人口不到一千万，其中一半以上居住在纽约市。
The Shantung province is in the latitude of North Carolina and Kentucky, or lies between that of San Francisco and Los Angeles. It has an area of nearly 56,000 square miles, about that of Wisconsin. Less than one-half of this area is cultivated land yet it is at the present time supporting a population exceeding 38,000,000 of people. New York state has today less than ten millions and more than half of these are in New York city.
2461年前，孔子诞生于此地，他的弟子孟子也生活于此地。同样，在孔子时代之前一千七百年，也就是公元前2297年黄河发生特大洪水之后，也就是4100多年前，大禹被任命为“工部尚书”，负责疏浚洪水和开凿运河。
It was in this province that Confucius was born 2461 years ago, and that Mencius, his disciple, lived. Here, too, seventeen hundred years before Confucius’ time, after one of the great floods of the Yellow river, 2297 B. C., and more than 4100 years ago, the Great Yu was appointed “Superintendent of Public Works” and entrusted with draining off the flood waters and canalizing the rivers.
义和团起义也起源于此。青岛位于胶州湾入口处。中日战争后，德国于1897年11月14日占领了青岛，名义上是为了赔偿两名德国传教士在山东被谋杀的损失。1898年3月6日，青岛湾被占领，直至涨潮。中日边界线及其岛屿以及从边界向四周延伸三十英里的“势力范围”，连同青岛，被租借给德国九十九年。俄国同时要求租借旅顺口，并获得了租借权。英国获得了山东威海卫的类似租借权，而法国则租借了中国南部的广州湾。但欧洲列强的“蚕食”并未随着这些租借而止，1898 年下半年，“势力范围政策”在国际上对铁路特许权和采矿权的争夺中达到顶峰。这极大地惊动了中国，起义自然而然地首先在山东爆发，参与者是清帝国创始人的近亲。正如人们所预料的那样，作为一个爱国的民族，尽管生性爱好和平，他们还是决心保卫自己的国家免受此类侵犯，义和团事件随之而来。
Here also was the beginning of the Boxer uprising. Tsingtao sits at the entrance of Kiaochow Bay. Following the war of Japan with China this was seized by Germany, November 14, 1897, nominally to indemnify for the murder of two German missionaries which had occurred in Shantung, and March 6th, 1898, this bay, to the high water line, its islands and a “Sphere of Influence” extending thirty miles in all directions from the boundary, together with Tsingtao, was leased to Germany for ninety-nine years. Russia demanded and secured a lease of Port Arthur at the same time. Great Britain obtained a similar lease of Weihaiwei in Shantung, while to France Kwangchow-wan in southern China, was leased. But the “encroachments” of European powers did not stop with these leases and during the latter part of 1898 the “Policy of Spheres of Influence” culminated in the international rivalry for railway concessions and mining. These greatly alarmed China and uprisings broke out very naturally first in Shantung, among the people nearest of kin to the founders of the Empire. As might have been expected of a patriotic, even though naturally peaceful people, they determined to defend their country against such encroachments and the Boxer troubles followed.
青岛港水深宽阔，常年无冰。德国正在青岛进行大规模的港口改造工程，这将对青岛乃至整个帝国产生深远的影响。内码头周围建有一座四英里长的码头，第二个码头也即将完工。德国还在这里维护着一个气象观测站，并在卓越的管理下建立了一个大型综合森林公园，在如此短的时间内取得了显著的进展。
Tsingtao has a deep, commodious harbor always free from ice and Germany is constructing here very extensive and substantial harbor improvements which will be of lasting benefit to the province and the Empire. A pier four miles in length encloses the inner wharf, and a second wharf is nearing completion. Germany is also maintaining a meteorological observatory here and has established a large, comprehensive Forest Garden, under excellent management, which is showing remarkable developments for so short a time.
我们的轮船在夜间进港，上岸后很快发现，当地人通常只说中文和德语；不过，在美国长老会传教团的W.H.斯科特牧师的热情帮助下，一位翻译答应晚上到我住的酒店，但他最终没有出现。下午我们在森林花园和重新造林区度过，这两个地方由哈斯先生负责管理。森林花园占地270英亩，重新造林区则占地3000英亩以上。花园里种植着各种各样的森林、果树和小正在对果实进行试验，并有望取得最有价值的成果。
Our steamer entered the harbor during the night and, on going ashore, we soon found that only Chinese and German were generally spoken; but through the kind assistance of Rev. W. H. Scott, of the American Presbyterian Mission, an interpreter promised to call at my hotel in the evening, although he failed to appear. The afternoon was spent at the Forest Garden and on the reforestation tract, which are under the supervision of Mr. Haas. The Forest Garden covers two hundred and seventy acres and the reforestation tract three thousand acres more. In the garden a great variety of forest and fruit trees and small fruits are being tried out with high promise of the most valuable results.
正是在青岛附近的陡峭山丘上，我们第一次近距离目睹了中国严重的土壤侵蚀；考虑到从十一月到六月的漫长旱季，几乎寸草不生的山丘上竟然恢复了森林的生长，这真是令人瞩目。图118显示了花岗岩山顶的土壤可能变得多么贫瘠，而一旦停止砍伐，森林的恢复速度又会多么快。从图中可以看到，正在风化的岩石是一种极其粗糙的结晶花岗岩，与表盘对比可以看出，它正在以惊人的速度风化。风化作用已经渗透到岩石表面深处，大晶体的粘结力几乎不比砾石层强多少。水分甚至树根都能轻易地深入岩石内部，晶体在刀刃的推挤下就会碎裂，岩石以最大的自由度崩塌。仅凭镐和铲，人们就沿着山坡开凿出了大量道路。仔细观察岩石，可以发现晶体表面之间存在沉积层，这些沉积层要么是由雨水渗透冲刷下来的，要么是由晶体在原地分解形成的。下一幅图（图119）显示了这种土壤上植物的生长规模。在图120中，植被和森林正在重新生长，紧密覆盖着图118和119所示的土壤表面和岩石结构。
It was in the steep hills about Tsingtao that we first saw at close range serious soil erosion in China; and the returning of forest growth on hills nearly devoid of soil was here remarkable, in view of the long dry seasons which prevail from November to June, and Fig. 118 shows how destitute of soil the crests of granite hills may become and yet how the coming back of the forest growth may hasten as soon as it is no longer cut away. The rock going into decay, where this view was taken, is an extremely coarse crystalline granite, as may be seen in contrast with the watch, and it is falling into decay at a marvelous rate. Disintegration has penetrated the rock far below the surface and the large crystals are held together with but little more tenacity than prevails in a bed of gravel. Moisture and even roots penetrate it deeply and readily and the crystals fall apart with thrusts of the knife blade, the rock crumbling with the greatest freedom. Roadways have been extensively carved along the sides of the hills with the aid of only pick and shovel. Close examination of the rock shows that layers of sediment exist between the crystal faces, either washed down by percolating rain or formed through decomposition of the crystals in place. The next illustration, Fig. 119, shows how large the growth on such soils may be, and in Fig. 120 the vegetation and forest growth are seen coming back, closely covering just such soil surfaces and rock structure as are indicated in Figs. 118 and 119.
图118：花岗岩山丘土壤贫瘠，正在迅速腐烂。青岛市石家庄市的再造林区。
Fig. 118.—Granite hill destitute of soil, rapidly falling into decay. Reforestation area, Tsingtao, Stantung.
图 119——几乎没有土壤的花岗岩表面，以松树为主的幼林正在其上生长。山东青岛的再造林区。
Fig 119.—Almost soil-free granite surface on which young forest growth, largely pine, is developing. Reforestation tract, Tsingtao, Shantung.
图 120——在图 118 和 119 所示的土壤条件下，森林和草本植物重新生长。山东青岛的重新造林区。
Fig. 120.—Forest and herbaceous growth coming back over such soil conditions as are seen in Figs. 118 and 119. Reforestation tract, Tsingtao, Shantung.
这些景色是在青岛的重新造林区拍摄的，但大部分生长的树木都是自生的，现在受到德国政府的保护，他们努力看看在仔细的监督下会有什么样的效果。
These views are taken on the reforestation tract at Tsingtao but most of the growth is volunteer, standing now protected by the German government in their effort to see what may be possible under careful supervision.
图80所示的松枝燃料是从图中所示的山丘和森林中采集的，但这些森林距离城市较远。青岛拥有四万汉人，海湾对岸的胶州湾拥有十二万人口，以及散布在狭窄平原上的其他村庄，对山地松枝的需求量很大。令人惊奇的是，森林竟然一直生长，并提供了如此多的燃料。
The loads of pine bough fuel represented in Fig. 80 were gathered from such hills and from such forest growth as are here represented, but on lands more distant from the city. But Tsingtao, with its forty thousand Chinese, and Kiaochow across the bay, with its one hundred and twenty thousand more, and other villages dotting the narrow plains, maintain a very great demand for such growth on the hill lands. The wonder is that forest growth has persisted at all and has contributed so much in the way of fuel.
图 121——青岛森林公园种植的野生黄色山东玫瑰近景，非常适合公园和驾车观光。
Fig. 121.—Close view of the wild yellow Shantung rose cultivated in the Forest Garden at Tsingtao and very effective for parks and pleasure drives.
森林花园里生长着一株极其美丽的野黄玫瑰，原产于山东，常用于公园景观美化，也应该被广泛引进到其他任何能繁衍生息的国家。它生长成茂密的花境和高达六到八英尺的丛生花丛，其鲜艳浓郁的黄色花朵如同云朵般绽放，营造出一种极其美妙的氛围。这些花是单瓣的，大小与玫瑰（Rosa rugosa）相当，花瓣尖端逐渐变成最精致的淡稻草黄色。而中心则是深橙色，这种对比足以在图121的照片中显示出来。这种玫瑰的另一个美丽而引人注目的特征是花朵簇生在单侧花环状的枝条上，有时长达12到18英寸，花朵之间靠得很近，甚至重叠。
Growing in the Forest Garden was a most beautiful wild yellow rose, native to Shantung, being used for landscape effect in the parking, and it ought to be widely introduced into other countries wherever it will thrive. It was growing as heavy borders and massive clumps six to eight feet high, giving a most wonderful effect, with its brilliant, dense cloud of the richest yellow bloom. The blossoms are single, fully as large as the Rosa rugosa, with the tips of the petals shading into the most dainty light straw yellow, while the center is a deep orange, the contrast being sufficient to show in the photograph from which Fig. 121 was prepared. Another beautiful and striking feature of this rose is the clustering of the blossoms in one-sided wreathlike sprays, sometimes twelve to eighteen inches long, the flowers standing close enough to even overlap.
我们聘请的翻译未能按约定出现，因此第二天一早我们乘早班火车前往济南，以便大致了解当地情况，并记录下最适合进行实地考察的地点。我们还决定通过济南的美国长老会学院聘请一名翻译。火车离开青岛后，绕过胶州湾近五十英里，经过一座同名城市，人口12万，1905年进出口贸易额超过2400万美元。在索陈，我们经过一个煤矿区，那里的煤炭被人们用篮子装着，由工人抬着运到车厢里。装煤的敞篷车厢上撒满了石灰水，作为封条，防止运输途中被盗，这样，如果不打开封条，任何货物都无法取走。这种做法在中国很普遍，适用于许多散装运输的货物。我们看到苦力扛着一筐筐的碾米，米粒表面撒上彩色粉末，形成了图案。切好的石头被捆扎起来运往市场，也像煤炭一样被粉刷成白色。
The interpreter engaged for us failed to appear as per agreement so the next morning we took the early train for Tsinan to obtain a general view of the country and to note the places most favorable as points for field study. We had resolved also to make an effort to secure an interpreter through the American Presbyterian College at Tsinan. Leaving Tsingtao, the train skirts around the Kiaochow bay for a distance of nearly fifty miles, where we pass the city of the same name with its population of 120,000, which had an import and export trade in 1905 valued at over $24,000,000. At Sochen we passed through a coal mining district where coal was being brought to the cars in baskets carried by men. The coal on the loaded open cars was sprinkled with whitewash, serving as a seal to safe-guard against stealing during transit, making it so that none could be removed without the fact being revealed by breaking the seal. This practice is general in China and is applied to many commodities handled in bulk. We saw baskets of milled rice carried by coolies sealed with a pattern laid over the surface by sprinkling some colored powder upon it. Cut stone, corded for the market, was whitewashed in the same manner as the coal.
当我们接近另一座拥有10万人口的城市潍县时，我们偶然看到火车经过时，有六支车队沿着这条路行驶，辨认出了一条深深凹陷、有着数百年历史的道路，路面被侵蚀了八到十英尺深。我们已经经过了好几条路，很难解释这种奇特的侵蚀现象。车队给出了解释，并将我们之前的解读与混凝土联系起来。沿着这些深坑道路，商队可以蜿蜒穿过田野，完全不会被人发现，除非有人碰巧靠近，或者车辆移动。尘埃云是产生这些微生物的方法之一，因此我们很少会对收集这些微生物的粪便在其中发挥重要作用感到惊讶。
As we were approaching Weihsien, another city of 100,000 people, we identified one of the deeply depressed, centuries-old roadways, worn eight to ten feet deep, by chancing to see half a dozen teams passing along it as the train crossed. We had passed several and were puzzling to account for such peculiar erosion. The teams gave the explanation and thus connected our earlier reading with the concrete. Along these deep-cut roadways caravans may pass, winding through the fields, entirely unobserved unless one chances to be close along the line or the movement is discovered by clouds of dust, one of the methods that has produced them, and we would not be surprised if gathering manure from them has played a large part also.
潍县靠近中国一条重要的商业公路，位于山东省煤矿区的中心地带。继续向济南方向行驶，我们经过了青岛府，这是山东省的另一个大城市，人口15万。我们整天骑马穿过麦田，这些麦田总是成排种植，在高密以东的山丘上成排种植，但从这里向西到济南，则是单排或双排连续种植。白天，我们经过了数千口用于灌溉的水井，如图123所示，其中许多是最近挖的，用来为当时严重干旱的大麦供水，而旱灾当时正威胁着大麦的收成。
Weihsien is near one of the great commercial highways of China and in the center of one of the coal mining regions of the province. Still further along towards Tsinan we passed Tsingchowfu, another of the large cities of the province, with 150,000 population. All day we rode through fields of wheat, always planted in rows, and in hills in the row east of Kaumi, but in single or double continuous drills westward from here to Tsinan. Thousands of wells used for irrigation, of the type seen in Fig. 123, were passed during the day, many of them recently dug to supply water for the barley suffering from the severe drought which was threatening the crop at the time.
下午六点半，我们的火车才抵达济南车站；七点半，我们吃完晚饭，雇了一辆黄包车去美国长老会学院找翻译。我们不会说中文，黄包车夫一句英语也不会说，也听不懂，但旅馆老板告诉了他去哪儿。我们冲进这座中国大城市的狭窄街道，黄包车夫能跑哪儿就跑哪儿，因为人多拥挤，或者路面粗糙，他只能走几步。我们拐了好几个弯，跨过好几个桥，穿过城墙上各处的拱门，直到天色渐暗，黄包车夫买了一盏灯笼点亮。我们原计划三十分钟后到达学院，但已经走了整整一个小时。过了一会儿，黄包车夫停在了一名警察跟前，和他谈了谈。街上好奇的人围了过来，我们这才意识到，自己在这座十万人口的中国城市的狭窄街道上迷路了。继续往前走是没用的，因为教会的大门紧锁。我们只能用手势示意回去，但对方却不理解。火车上，一位体贴又和蔼的老人德国人认出了一位身处异乡的陌生人，主动提供了有用的信息。他从自己的日报上剪下了一则广告，介绍了一家不错的酒店。广告上用德文、英文和中文分别标注了酒店名称。我们把广告递给警察，指着酒店名称，示意他想再去一次，但他显然两种语言都看不懂，似乎以为我们是在指路去学院。人群中一个男人和一个男孩似乎主动提出要护送我们。人群散开，我们离开了他们，拐过更多拐角，进入更多没有灯光的狭窄小巷，其中一条小巷甚至难以通行。如果真是护送者的话，他们最终还是离开了我们，但黑暗的小巷一直延伸到一片空白的墙面，那可能是我们之前三次穿过亮着灯的隧道穿过的那座巨大城墙的另一段。车夫在这里停下来掉头，但灯笼里的光线太弱，我们无法从他的脸上看出他的想法，而且在这种紧急情况下，我们的舌头都完全派不上用场，所以我们示意他掉头，然后我们绕道而行，在晚上 11 点到达酒店。
It was 6:30 P. M. before our train pulled into the station at Tsinan; 7:30 when we had finished supper and engaged a ricksha to take us to the American Presbyterian College in quest of an interpreter. We could not speak Chinese, the ricksha boy could neither speak nor understand a word of English, but the hotel proprietor had instructed him where to go. We plunged into the narrow streets of a great Chinese city, the boy running wherever he could, walking where he must on account of the density of the crowds or the roughness of the stone paving. We had turned many corners, crossed bridges and passed through tunneled archways in sections of the massive city walls, until it was getting dusk and the ricksha man purchased and lighted a lantern. We were to reach the college in thirty minutes but had been out a full hour. A little later the boy drew up to and held conference with a policeman. The curious of the street gathered about and it dawned upon us that we were lost in the night in the narrow streets of a Chinese city of a hundred thousand people. To go further would be useless for the gates of the mission compound would be locked. We could only indicate by motions our desire to return, but these were not understood. On the train a thoughtful, kindly old German had recognized a stranger in a foreign land and volunteered useful information, cutting from his daily paper an advertisement describing a good hotel. This gave the name of the hotel in German, English and in Chinese characters. We handed this to the policeman, pointing to the name of the hotel, indicating by motions the desire to return, but apparently he was unable to read in either language and seemed to think we were assuming to direct the way to the college. A man and boy in the crowd apparently volunteered to act as escort for us. The throng parted and we left them, turned more corners into more unlighted narrow alleyways, one of which was too difficult to permit us to ride. The escorts, if such they were, finally left us, but the dark alley led on until it terminated at the blank face, probably of some other portion of the massive city wall we had thrice threaded through lighted tunnels. Here the ricksha boy stopped and turned about but the light from his lantern was too feeble to permit reading the workings of his mind through his face, and our tongues were both utterly useless in this emergency, so we motioned for him to turn back and by some route we reached the hotel at 11 P. M.
我们放弃了去学院找翻译的计划，乘早班火车返回青岛。到达青岛后，我们及时通过斯科特先生的热情帮助，找到了朱维庸先生，得到了非常满意的服务。我们曾两次往返于两座城市之间，对当地的情况以及当季的农作物和田间作业情况有了大致的了解。第二天早上，我们乘早班火车前往沧口，准备漫步田间，与四十多个世纪以来，一代又一代的农民交谈。这些农民凭借着智慧和体力，成功地、持续地在小块土地上养活了大家庭，而没有让土地变得贫瘠。下一幅插图就取自一张在这样的田地里拍摄的照片。我们请求这位老农夫在他小小的田地里扶着犁耕一圈，这让这位老农夫大吃一惊。田地，但他欣然同意了。我们的犁沟翻得不如他的好，也不如用双柄奥利弗或约翰迪尔犁得好，但比老人预想的要好，赢得了他的尊重。
We abandoned the effort to visit the college, for the purpose of securing an interpreter, and took the early train back to Tsingtao, reaching there in time to secure the very satisfactory service of Mr. Chu Wei Yung, through the further kind offices of Mr. Scott. We had been twice over the road between the two cities, obtaining a general idea of the country and of the crops and field operations at this season. The next morning we took an early train to Tsangkau and were ready to walk through the fields and to talk with the last generations of more than forty unbroken centuries of farmers who, with brain and brawn, have successfully and continuously sustained large families on small areas without impoverishing their soil. The next illustration is from a photograph taken in one of these fields. We astonished the old farmer by asking the privilege of holding his plow through one round in his little field, but he granted the privilege readily. Our furrow was not as well turned as his, nor as well as we could have done with a two-handled Oliver or John Deere, but it was better than the old man had expected and won his respect.
这种犁有一个坚固的钢制犁头，呈V形，呈钝角，独立式结构。犁板由铸钢制成，扭转性能良好，能够很好地翻动土壤。犁杆和犁底为木制，犁梁末端有一个测量犁沟深度的块。对于农民来说，这种犁的成本是2.15美元（黄金）。一天的耕作结束后，农民会把犁扛在肩上带回家，即使路程可能超过一英里，也要小心地收好。中国史书记载，犁是由神农发明的，他生活在公元前2737-2697年，“教授农业艺术和草药的医疗用途”。他被尊为“农神和医神”。
This plow had a good steel point, as a separate, blunt, V-shaped piece, and a moldboard of cast steel with a good twist which turned the soil well. The standard and sole were of wood and at the end of the beam was a block for gauging the depth of furrow. The cost of this plow, to the farmer, was $2.15, gold, and when the day’s work is done it is taken home on the shoulders, even though the distance may be a mile or more, and carefully housed. Chinese history states that the plow was invented by Shennung, who lived 2737–2697 B. C. and “taught the art of agriculture and the medical use of herbs”. He is honored as the “God of Agriculture and Medicine.”
图 122——山东犁，简单但有效。
Fig. 122.—A Shantung plow, simple but effective.
通过我的翻译，我们得知这个男人家里有十二口人，他靠着十五亩地（2.5英亩）维持生计，还有他的队伍，包括一头牛和一头小驴，此外还养了两头猪。这是按照一个四十英亩农场中 192 人、16 头牛、16 头驴和 32 头猪的比例计算的；人口密度相当于每平方英里耕地 3072 人、256 头牛、256 头驴和 512 头猪。
Through my interpreter we learned that there were twelve in this man’s family, which he maintained on fifteen mow of land, or 2.5 acres, together with his team, consisting of a cow and small donkey, besides feeding two pigs. This is at the rate of 192 people, 16 cows, 16 donkeys and 32 pigs on a forty-acre farm; and of a population density equivalent to 3072 people, 256 cows, 256 donkeys and 512 swine per square mile of cultivated field.
在另一处小农场，我们与一位站在井边的农民交谈，如图27所示。他正在灌溉一小块30英尺宽、138英尺长的大麦田。他拥有并耕种的土地只有一又三分之二英亩，但他家有十口人，养了一头驴，通常还养了一头猪。这块40英亩的农场，其维持能力为240人、24头驴和24头猪；人口密度为每平方英里3840人、384头驴和384头猪。在丰收季节，他通常的年销售额相当于73美元黄金。
On another small holding we talked with the farmer standing at the well in Fig. 27, where he was irrigating a little piece of barley 30 feet wide and 138 feet long. He owned and was cultivating but one and two-thirds acres of land and yet there were ten in his family and he kept one donkey and usually one pig. Here is a maintenance capacity at the rate of 240 people, 24 donkeys and 24 pigs on a forty-acre farm; and a population density of 3840 people, 384 donkeys and 384 pigs per square mile. His usual annual sales in good seasons were equivalent in value to $73, gold.
这两种情况下种植的作物都是小麦、大麦、小米、红薯、大豆或花生。该省的妇女和儿童在家中制作了大量的草编，我们返回上海的轮船上几乎全是装在麻袋里的去壳花生和大捆的草编，这些草编的目的地是欧美的帽子制造地。
In both of these cases the crops grown were wheat, barley, large and small millet, sweet potatoes and soy beans or peanuts. Much straw braid is manufactured in the province by the women and children in their homes, and the cargo of the steamer on which we returned to Shanghai consisted almost entirely of shelled peanuts in gunny sacks and huge bales of straw braid destined for the manufacture of hats in Europe and America.
山东的降雨量适中，年均降雨量略高于24英寸（约60厘米），这一因素在塑造这些古老民族的农业实践方面发挥了重要作用。图123比图27更近，图中的农民正在浇灌他的一小块大麦田。井刚挖了八英尺深，专门用来浇灌这片麦田，之后再填满，种植作物。
Shantung has only moderate rainfall, little more than 24 inches annually, and this fact has played an important part in determining the agricultural practices of these very old people. In Fig. 123 is a closer view than Fig. 27 of the farmer watering his little field of barley. The well had just been dug over eight feet deep, expressly and solely to water this one piece of grain once, after which it would be filled and the ground planted.
与往年一样，这个季节异常干旱，人们担心饥荒。从去年十月底到我们5月21日的访问，青岛的降雨量仅为2.44英寸。在长达250英里的铁路沿线，数百口这样的临时水井已被挖掘或正在挖掘中，几乎所有水井都计划在地里的庄稼灌溉完毕后填满，以便腾出土地供人们灌溉。这些房屋分布在相距一英里或更远的村庄里，而他们的土地或租赁地通常分散，相距甚远，因此，建造这种灌溉设备的关键在于便于携带。水桶很轻，只是一个用豆粉糊防水的编织篮子。绞盘像一根长线轴绕着一根别针转动一样，标准配置是一个带有可拆卸支脚的三脚架。我们看到的一些水井深达16到20英尺，这些水井里的水由一头牵着绳子的牛直接提上来。
The season had been unusually dry, as had been the one before, and the people were fearing famine. Only 2.44 inches of rain had fallen at Tsingtao between the end of the preceding October and our visit, May 21st, and hundreds of such temporary wells had been or were being dug all along both sides of the two hundred and fifty miles of railway, and nearly all to be filled when the crop on the ground was irrigated, to release the land for one to follow. The homes are in villages a mile or more apart and often the holdings or rentals are scattered, separated by considerable distances, hence easy portability is the key-note in the construction of this irrigating outfit. The bucket is very light, simply a woven basket waterproofed with a paste of bean flour. The windlass turns like a long spool on a single pin and the standard is a tripod with removable legs. Some wells we saw were sixteen or twenty feet deep and in these the water was raised by a cow walking straight away at the end of a rope.
图 123.——中国山东的临时水井和便携式灌溉设备。
Fig. 123.—Temporary well and portable irrigation outfit, Shantung, China.
下表列出了该省的降雨量和降雨分布，这些降雨量和降雨分布是根据德国气象台通过 B. Meyermanns 博士提供的青岛十年记录的平均值得出的，其中还插入了威斯康星州麦迪逊的降雨量以供比较。
The amount and distribution of rainfall in this province, as indicated by the mean of ten years’ records at Tsingtao, obtained at the German Meteorological Observatory through the courtesy of Dr. B. Meyermanns, are given in the table in which the rainfall of Madison, Wisconsin, is inserted for comparison.
山东全年降雨量不足25英寸，而威斯康星州则超过31英寸。山东六、七、八月份的降雨量接近14.5英寸，而威斯康星州仅为11.2英寸。夏季降雨量较大，加上持续施肥和精心管理，再加上温暖的纬度，使得山东如今能够在面积相当于威斯康星州目前仅养活233万3860人的地区养活3824万7900人。美国农业最终能否养活目前16个人呢？只喂一个人？如果是这样，那么相应地就必须采取更加激烈和有效的做法，而我们既不能太早知道这些旧世界人被迫去做什么；他们是如何成功的；以及我们和他们如何才能改进他们的做法，通过更充分地利用体力和机械设备来减轻人类的负担。
While Shantung receives less than 25 inches of rain during the year, against Wisconsin’s more than 31 inches, the rainfall during June, July and August in Shantung is nearly 14.5 inches, while Wisconsin receives but 11.2 inches. This greater summer rainfall, with persistent fertilization and intense management, in a warm latitude, are some of the elements permitting Shantung today to feed 38,247,900 people from an area equal to that upon which Wisconsin is yet feeding but 2,333,860. Must American agriculture ultimately feed sixteen people where it is now feeding but one? If so, correspondingly more intense and effective practices must follow, and we can neither know too well nor too early what these Old World people have been driven to do; how they have succeeded, and how we and they may improve upon their practices and lighten the human burdens by more fully utilizing physical forces and mechanical appliances.
当我们穿过另一片田地时，看到一对母女正在一小块田地里，在精心修剪的、几乎风干的土地上移植红薯。这块田地是一处严重侵蚀的山坡上残留的桌子（图124）。她的丈夫正从四分之一英里外的一个深谷里挑水来润湿土壤，他用两个桶（图125）扛着水，穿过中间的一条沟壑。他在沟壑上挖了四个洞，用一个缝补好的破葫芦勺把水灌满，然后轮流从一个桶舀到另一个桶里。
As we passed on to other fields we found a mother and daughter transplanting sweet potatoes on carefully fitted ridges of nearly air-dry soil in a little field, the remnant of a table on a deeply eroded hillside, Fig. 124. The husband was bringing water for moistening the soil from a deep ravine a quarter of a mile distant, carrying it on his shoulder in two buckets, Fig. 125, across an intervening gulch. He had excavated four holes at intervals up the gulch and from these, with a broken gourd dipper mended with stitches, he filled his pails, bailing in succession from one to the other in regular rotation.
图 124 山东省遭受严重侵蚀，地面残留着小麦。
Fig. 124.—Strong erosion in Shantung, with wheat on remnants of tables.
女儿正在插秧。她用拇指和其他手指捏着插秧苗的尖端，用力向前一拨，在松软干燥的土壤上犁出一道沟；然后，用向后移动并向下推，将泥土栽种好，周围的土壤也变得坚实，留下一个洼地，母亲用另一个葫芦勺舀了大约一品脱水进去。等水浸透后，用干土覆盖泥土，再用坚硬和松散的泥土覆盖上去，唯一的工具就是赤手和瓢。
The daughter was transplanting. Holding the slip with its tip between thumb and fingers, a strong forward stroke plowed a furrow in the mellow, dry soil; then, with a backward movement and a downward thrust, planted the slip, firmed the soil about it, leaving a depression in which the mother poured about a pint of water from another gourd dipper. After this water had soaked away, dry earth was drawn about the slip and firmed and looser earth drawn over this, the only tools being the naked hands and dipper.
父母衣着粗布，女儿却衣着整洁，纤纤玉手上戴着戒指和手镯。两个女人都没缠足。他家有十口人；在相邻的类似地区，他们种着即将收割的小块小麦地，都种在山坡上，锄过地，考虑到当时极度干旱的天气，小麦长势惊人地旺盛。土豆正是在这种极端条件下种植的，为即将到来的雨季做准备。去年夏天，当地遭遇了异常干旱，饥荒岌岌可危。政府最近颁布了一项法令，禁止在省内出售绵羊，担心它们可能会被用作食物。我们走过时，一个村子里走了出来一位老妇人，问我的翻译，我们是不是来求雨的。我们发现这些人正处于如此巨大的压力之下。
The father and mother were dressed in coarse garb but the daughter was neatly clad, with delicate hands decorated with rings and a bracelet. Neither of the women had bound feet. There were ten in his family; and on adjacent similar areas they had small patches of wheat nearly ready for the harvest, all planted in hills, hoed, and in astonishingly vigorous condition considering the extreme drought which prevailed. The potatoes were being planted under these extreme conditions in anticipation of the rainy season which then was fully due. The summer before had been one of unusual drought, and famine was threatened. The government had recently issued an edict that no sheep should be sold from the province, fearing they might be needed for food. An old woman in one of the villages came out, as we walked through, and inquired of my interpreter if we had come to make it rain. Such was the stress under which we found these people.
图125——取水移植红薯。一个标准石油罐与中国古代石罐保持平衡。
Fig. 125.—Getting water to transplant sweet potatoes. A Standard Oil can is balanced against China’s ancient stone jar.
图 126.—同一农家院的两个视图，显示了一堆准备好的堆肥和农场团队。
Fig. 126.—Two views of the same farmyard, showing a pile of prepared compost and the farm team.
一位拥有 10 英亩土地的大农场主说，在丰收季节，他的小麦产量通常为每亩 160 斤。割草，相当于每英亩 21.3 蒲式耳。他预计本季产量不会超过这个数量的一半。他使用了一种准备好的土堆肥作为肥料（我们稍后会描述）。将其与谷物混合，然后与种子一起播种在山上，每英亩施用约 5333 磅，以我们的货币计算，约为 8.60 美元，或每吨 3.22 美元。图 10—6显示了一堆准备好的堆肥，准备转移到田里。这些视图显示了院子保持得多么干净，以及所有动物粪便都得到了多么精心的保存。牛和驴是工作队，就像图 10—2中提到的农夫所使用的那样。下图背景中的土堆是坟墓；牲畜身后的栅栏是用高粱秆做成的，而驴子右侧的栅栏则用泥土做成，两者都表明木材匮乏。房屋也是茅草屋顶，墙壁是用泥土砌成的，并用掺有谷壳的泥灰浆抹平。
One of the large farmers, owning ten acres, stated that his usual yield of wheat in good season was 160 catty per mow, equivalent to 21.3 bushels per acre. He was expecting the current season not more than one-half this amount. As a fertilizer he used a prepared earth compost which we shall describe later, mixing it with the grain and sowing in the hills with the seed, applying about 5333 pounds per acre, which he valued, in our currency, at $8.60, or $3.22 per ton. A pile of such prepared compost is seen in Fig. 126, ready to be transferred to the field. The views show with what cleanliness the yard is kept and with what care all animal waste is saved. The cow and donkey are the work team, such as was being used by the plowman referred to in Fig. 122. The mounds in the background of the lower view are graves; the fence behind the animals is made from the stems of the large millet, kaoliang, while that at the right of the donkey is made of earth, both indicative of the scarcity of lumber. The buildings, too, are thatched and their walls are of earth plastered with an earthen mortar worked up with chaff.
在另一块田里，一个正在耕作和施肥红薯的男人把磨碎的干堆肥带到田里，堆成一堆。父亲在田里耕作；他十六岁的儿子跟在后面，用篮子把磨碎的干堆肥撒在沟底。下一道沟盖上了肥料，四条沟交织在一起形成了一个垄，等第二个大儿子用沉重的手耙把垄顶弄平整后，土豆就会种植在上面。肥料就这样直接施在了垄下，每英亩7400磅，价值7.15美元（按我们的货币计算），相当于每吨1.93美元。
In another field a man plowing and fertilizing for sweet potatoes had brought to the field and laid down in piles the finely pulverized dry compost. The father was plowing; his son of sixteen years was following and scattering, from a basket, the pulverized dry compost in the bottom of the furrow. The next furrow covered the fertilizer, four turned together forming a ridge upon which the potatoes were to be planted after a second and older son had smoothed and fitted the crest with a heavy hand rake. The fertilizer was thus applied directly beneath the row, at the rate of 7400 pounds per acre, valued at $7.15, our currency, or $1.93 per ton.
翻开的土壤竟然如此湿润，令我们惊叹不已。尽管当时正值极度干旱，地下水位也深达八英尺以上，但土壤却湿润得像手掌一样。这片土地此前没有作物，现在已被耕种。
We were astonished at the moist condition of the soil turned, which was such as to pack in the hand notwithstanding the extreme drought prevailing and the fact that standing water in the ground was more than eight feet below the surface. The field had been without crop and cultivated.
当被问到“你预计这块地能产出多少红薯？”他回答说：“大约4000斤。”每英亩产量为440蒲式耳，每蒲式耳56磅。通常的市场价格为每百斤1.00墨西哥美元，因此作物总价值为每英亩79.49美元黄金。他的土地估价为每亩60墨西哥美元，或每英亩154.80美元黄金。
To the question, “What yield of sweet potatoes do you expect from this piece of land?” he replied, “About 4000 catty,” which is 440 bushels of 56 pounds per acre. The usual market price was stated to be $1.00, Mexican, per one hundred catty, making the gross value of the crop $79.49, gold, per acre. His land was valued at $60, Mexican, per mow, or $154.80 per acre, gold.
我的翻译告诉我，山东这一带的富裕农民平均拥有15到20亩土地，足够养活八口人。这些农民通常饲养两头牛、两头驴和八到十头猪。不太富裕的农民或小农户拥有2到5亩土地，并充当大农户的管理员。以最大的农场（每个八口之家拥有20亩土地）为例，每平方英里的密度应为1536人，而相当于威斯康星州面积的农田将容纳8600万人、2150万头牛、2150万头驴和8600万头猪。这些观察结果适用于该省最富饶的地区之一，但该省大片土地却无法耕种，上次人口普查显示，总人口几乎只有这个数字的一半。因此，很明显，要么是采用了非常有效的农业方法，要么是实行了极端节约。两者都是事实。
My interpreter informed me that the average well-to-do farmers in this part of Shantung own from fifteen to twenty mow of land and this amount is quite ample to provide for eight people. Such farmers usually keep two cows, two donkeys and eight or ten pigs. The less well-to-do or small farmers own two to five mow and act as superintendents for the larger farmers. Taking the largest holding, of twenty mow per family of eight people, as a basis, the density per square mile would be 1536 people, and an area of farm land equal to the state of Wisconsin would have 86,000,000 people; 21,500,000 cows; 21,500,000 donkeys and 86,000,000 swine. These observations apply to one of the most productive sections of the province, but very large areas of land in the province are not cultivable and the last census showed the total population nearly one-half of this amount. It is clear, therefore, that either very effective agricultural methods are practiced or else extreme economy is exercised. Both are true.
这天在田野里，我们的翻译在一家农家买了晚餐，带了四个煮鸡蛋给我们，他按我们8.3美分的价格付了钱，但晚餐费可能已经包含在价格里了。下表列出了1909年5月23日在青岛市场询价所得的一些商品的价格，折算成我们货币。
On this day in the fields our interpreter procured his dinner at a farm house, bringing us four boiled eggs, for which he paid at the rate of 8.3 cents of our money, but his dinner was probably included in the price. The next table gives the prices for some articles obtained by inquiry at the Tsingtao market, May 23rd, 1909, reduced to our currency.
与我们自己的价格相比，唯一便宜的商品是腌萝卜、萝卜和鸡蛋。列出的大多数商品在当地都不是当季的，都是进口给外国人的，萝卜、萝卜、猪肉、鱼和鸡蛋是例外。罗斯教授告诉我们，他发现在陕西，鸡蛋的价格是我们的1分钱4个。
The only items which are low compared with our own prices are salted turnips, radishes and eggs. Most of the articles listed were out of season for the locality and were imported for the foreigners, turnips, radishes, pork, fish and eggs being the exceptions. Prof. Ross informs us that he found eggs selling in Shensi at four for one cent of our money.
我们的翻译要求每天一美元墨西哥币，即43美分美元的报酬，他自己解决伙食问题。这里农场工人的正常工资是每年8.60美元，包括食宿。我们提到了传教士支付的家政服务工资。中国人被认为是高效、忠诚和值得信赖的仆人。利格夫妇习惯把钱袋交给他们管理，因为他们觉得可以依靠他们进行最划算的讨价还价。通常，当他们被指示采购某种物品时，如果他们发现价格比平时高出一两文钱，他们就会选择更便宜的替代品。如果有人问他们为什么不听从指示，他们就会回答“太高了，买不起”。
Our interpreter asked a compensation of one dollar, Mexican, or 43 cents, U. S. currency, per day, he furnishing his own meals. The usual wage for farm labor here was $8.60, per year, with board and lodging. We have referred to the wages paid by missionaries for domestic service. As servants the Chinese are considered efficient, faithful and trustworthy. It was the custom of Mr. and Mrs. League to intrust them with the purse for marketing, feeling that they could be depended upon for the closest bargaining. Commonly, when instructed to procure a certain article, if they found the price one or two cash higher than usual they would select a cheaper substitute. If questioned as to why instructions were not followed the reply would be “Too high, no can afford.”
利格太太讲述了她和厨子使用我们厨房电器的经历。在厨房安装了现代化的炉灶和炊具，并教他如何使用之后，几天后，她走进厨房，惊讶地发现老式的中式炉灶已经架在炉灶上，烹饪也用着普通的中式家具。当她问他为什么不用炉灶时，他回答说：“火太大了。”没有什么比不必要的开支、任何形式的奢侈浪费或购物时判断失误更让这些人心烦意乱的了。
Mrs. League recited her experience with her cook regarding his use of our kitchen appliances. After fitting the kitchen with a modern range and cooking utensils, and working with him to familiarize him with their use, she was surprised, on going into the kitchen a few days later, to find that the old Chinese stove had been set on the range and the cooking being done with the usual Chinese furniture. When asked why he was not using the stove his reply was “Take too much fire.” Nothing jars on the nerves of these people more than incurring of needless expense, extravagance in any form, or poor judgment in making purchases.
我们每天都越来越深刻地感受到，几个世纪以来，人口稠密给人们带来了巨大而持续的压力，遗传规律在这种压力下如何对人们的身体、习惯和性格产生影响。甚至连牛羊未能逃脱它不可抗拒的力量。在这个省份，我们经常看到人们沿着蜿蜒穿过田野和坟地的狭窄、没有围栏的小路，放牧着二三十只羊。持续的干旱使这些地方几乎寸草不生，然而羊群却毫不打扰地在鲜嫩的小麦和大麦上蹭来蹭去。一次又一次，羊群被驶来的火车冲进麦田，但它们却立即回到原地，一口也不吃。只需要牧羊人的呼唤和偶尔精准的土块，就能把它们带回它们那令人不快的牧场。
Daily we became more and more impressed by the evidence of the intense and incessant stress imposed by the dense populations of centuries, and how, under it, the laws of heredity have wrought upon the people, affecting constitution, habits and character. Even the cattle and sheep have not escaped its irresistable power. Many times in this province we saw men herding flocks of twenty to thirty sheep along the narrow unfenced pathways winding through the fields, and on the grave lands. The prevailing drought had left very little green to be had from these places and yet sheep were literally brushing their sides against fresh green wheat and barley, never molesting them. Time and again the flocks were stampeded into the grain by an approaching train, but immediately they returned to their places without taking a nibble. The voice of the shepherd and an occasional well aimed lump of earth only being required to bring them back to their uninviting pastures.
在江苏和浙江两省，经常可以看到六只白山羊排成一列，沿着小路吃草，牵着一根像串珠子的绳子，有时由一个孩子牵着。在这里，最常见的景象之一也是水牛在小路和运河两岸的田野里无人看管地吃草，周围都是庄稼。在中国浙江，我们最难忘的一次震惊发生在我们身上。当时，我们从我们那艘低矮的中国船屋门口凝视着变幻的景色，陷入了沉思。天空中的某种东西和运河岸边的植被唤起了我们童年时代的景象。当我们斜眼望向长满草的河岸时，我们仿佛正沿着白水溪滑过熟悉的草地，站起来就能看到老家。就在那一刻，一头巨大的水牛缓缓滑入视野，它被框在门口，高高地投射在落日余晖的彩色天空上，一动不动地矗立在一座巨大的坟丘顶上，高出田野足足十英尺。但转瞬之间，这景象被另一幅景象所取代，连同它美丽的背景，十四年前在遥远的特罗萨克斯，当我们的马车急速绕过山间的一个急转弯时，突然发现了一头苏格兰野牛，它同样从一处小而孤的山坡上，直冲云霄。岩石峰顶，然后，记忆以超过无线电的速度跨越了两大洋和中间的一块大陆，把我们带回到中国，然后以每小时五英里的速度把第一张照片移过狭窄的门口。
In Kiangsu and Chekiang provinces a line of half a dozen white goats were often seen feeding single file along the pathways, held by a cord like a string of beads, sometimes led by a child. Here, too, one of the most common sights was the water buffalo grazing unattended among the fields along the paths and canal banks, with crops all about. One of the most memorable shocks came to us in Chekiang, China, when we had fallen into a revery while gazing at the shifting landscape from the doorway of our low-down Chinese houseboat. Something in the sky and the vegetation along the canal bank had recalled the scenes of boyhood days and it seemed, as we looked aslant up the bank with its fringe of grass, that we were gliding along Whitewater creek through familiar meadows and that standing up would bring the old home in sight. That instant there glided into view, framed in the doorway and projected high against the tinted sky above the setting sun, a giant water buffalo standing motionless as a statue on the summit of a huge grave mound, lifted fully ten feet above the field. But in a flash this was replaced by a companion scene, and with all its beautiful setting, which had been as suddenly fixed on the memory fourteen years before in the far away Trossachs when our coach, hurriedly rounding a sharp turn in the hills, suddenly exposed a wild ox of Scotland similarly thrust against the sky from a small but isolated rocky summit, and then, outspeeding the wireless, recollection crossed two oceans and an intervening continent, bringing us back to China before a speed of five miles per hour could move the first picture across the narrow doorway.
正是在沧口附近的田野里，图32中提到的那些健壮的货船从我们身边驶过。它们沿着一条从胶州通往无数乡村的小路，已经走了11英里，推着满载日本制造的火柴的独轮车。在上海和其他城市看到的许多独轮车夫都来自山东，他们外出务工，打算回家。在收获季节，许多人也会向西或向北前往满洲寻找工作，冬天再返回家乡。
It was through the fields about Tsangkow that the stalwart freighters referred to, Fig. 32, passed us on one of the paths leading from Kiaochow through unnumbered country villages, already eleven miles on their way with their wheel-barrows loaded with matches made in Japan. Many of the wheelbarrow men seen in Shanghai and other cities are from Shantung families, away for employment, expecting to return. During the harvest season, too, many of these people go west and north into Manchuria seeking employment, returning to their homes in winter.
亚历山大·霍西 (Alexander Hosie) 在其关于满洲的书中指出，每年春天，仅从烟台就有 20,000 多名中国劳工乘轮船前往牛场，其他人则乘帆船或其他方式前往，因此，收获季节过后，乘轮船返回烟台的人数比春天离开烟台的人数多 8,000 多人，由此他得出结论，山东每年为满洲提供 30,000 名农业劳动力。
Alexander Hosie, in his book on Manchuria, states that from Chefoo alone more than 20,000 Chinese laborers cross to Newchwang every spring by steamer, others finding their way there by junks or other means, so that after the harvest season 8,000 more return by steamer to Chefoo than left that way in the spring, from which he concludes that Shantung annually supplies Manchuria with agricultural labor to the extent of 30,000 men.
图127显示的是山东在这个旱季接近成熟的小麦的平均长势。小麦的高度大约有三英尺多，正如我们撑在小麦行间的伞所示。在小麦田的右侧，坟丘蜿蜒而上，遮蔽了天空。我们看不到任何山丘，因为我们身处辽阔的平原，这片平原由海平面上升起，位于两座山岛之间，形成了山东的高地。
About the average condition of wheat in Shantung during this dry season, and nearing maturity, is seen in Fig. 127, standing rather more than three feet high, as indicated by our umbrella between the rows. Beyond the wheat and to the right, grave mounds serrate the sky line, no hills being in sight, for we were in the broad plain built up from the sea between the two mountain islands forming the highlands of Shantung.
5月22日，我们来到胶州湾以北的田野，从青岛乘火车向西约60英里，但位于胶州湾高水位线向后延伸30英里的中立区内。德国人在这里修建了一条宽阔的碎石路，仿照欧洲最好的样式，但上面行驶着40个世纪前的车辆，如图128和129所示。令人怀疑的是，这些人在更好的道路上遇到的通行阻力比他们留下的老路要小得多，这足以让他们相信，在车辆和劳动力价格发生变化之前，修建和维护道路的成本是值得的。对于一个拥有如此多人口和悠久历史的国家来说，道路一直只是人迹罕至的小路，这似乎很奇怪；但直到上个世纪的科学开辟了道路，现代的交通方式对所有人来说仍然是物理上的不可能。在他们的历史上，这些人的负担主要是靠步行，大多是由男人的脚来承担，如果负担可以有利地分担，则由单身男人承担。动物是补充的负重者，但与人一样，他们直接用自己的脚来搬运重物，这种方式受路面不平整的影响最小。
On May 22nd we were in the fields north of Kiaochow, some sixty miles by rail west from Tsingtao, but within the neutral zone extending thirty miles back from the high water line of the bay of the same name. Here the Germans had built a broad macadam road after the best European type but over it were passing the vehicles of forty centuries seen in Figs. 128 and 129. It is doubtful if the resistance to travel experienced by these men on the better road was enough less than that on the old paths they had left to convince them that the cost of construction and maintenance would be worth while until vehicles and the price of labor change. It may appear strange that with a nation of so many millions and with so long a history, roads have persisted as little more than beaten foot-paths; but modern methods of transportation have remained physical impossibilities to every people until the science of the last century opened the way. Throughout their history the burdens of these people have been carried largely on foot, mostly on the feet of men, and of single men wherever the load could be advantageously divided. Animals have been supplemental burden bearers but, as with the men, they have carried the load directly on their own feet, the mode least disturbed by inequalities of road surface.
图 127：中国山东的一片麦田，在异常干旱的季节里即将成熟。
Fig. 127.—Field of wheat in Shantung, China, nearing maturity in a season of unusual drought.
就适应最恶劣路况而言，没有任何一种交通工具能与独轮车相比，它依靠一个轮子和两只脚前进。除了扁担之外，在中国，没有哪种交通工具使用得比独轮车更多，而且世界上也没有任何一种独轮车能像中国独轮车那样高效地利用人力，这一点从图32和图61中可以清楚地看出，几乎整个负载都平衡在一个又高又大的宽胎轮子的轴上。手推车把手上的肩带可以减轻手部负担，当负载或路况较重时，可以用人力或动物帮忙拉车，甚至在风向适宜时，升起帆来获得推进力也是很常见的。只有在中国北方以及地势较为平坦、水渠很少或没有水渠的地区，手推车才被广泛使用，但在恶劣的道路上行驶更加困难。大多数重型马车，尤其是图203所示的满洲马车，车轮都与随车轮旋转的车轴牢固地连接在一起，轴承则位于车厢内。但现代型的新型马车正在被引入。
For adaptability to the worst road conditions no vehicle equals the wheelbarrow, progressing by one wheel and two feet. No vehicle is used more in China, if the carrying pole is excepted, and no wheelbarrow in the world permits so high an efficiency of human power as the Chinese, as must be clear from Figs. 32 and 61, where nearly the whole load is balanced on the axle of a high, massive wheel with broad tire. A shoulder band from the handles of the barrow relieves the strain on the hands and, when the load or the road is heavy, men or animals may aid in drawing, or even, when the wind is favorable, it is not unusual to hoist a sail to gain propelling power. It is only in northern China, and then in the more level portions, where there are few or no canals, that carts have been extensively used, but are more difficult to manage on bad roads. Most of the heavy carts, especially those in Manchuria, seen in Fig. 203, have the wheels framed rigidly to the axle which revolves with them, the bearing being in the bed of the cart. But new carts of modern type are being introduced.
图 128 和 129——中国山东胶州，四千年前的车辆行驶在德国建造的现代道路上。
Figs. 128 and 129.—The vehicles of forty centuries on a modern road of German construction, Kiaochow, Shantung, China.
在内陆水道的开发利用程度上，没有人能与中国人相比。在陆路运输方面，他们显然遵循了阻力最小、自主创新的路线，这也是工业化中国的特点。
In the extent of development and utilization of inland waterways no people have approached the Chinese. In the matter of land transportation they have clearly followed the line of least resistance for individual initiative, so characteristic of industrial China.
政府有信使或邮政道路连接北京与帝国最远的地区，通常列举的大约有21条。这些道路尽可能走最短的路线，经常开凿在山腰，甚至穿过隧道。在平原地区，这些道路可能有60到75英尺宽，铺有路面，有时路边还种有成排的树木。在某些情况下，每隔三英里还会竖立一座信号塔，沿途还有客栈、驿站和士兵驻地。
There are Government courier or postal roads which connect Peking with the most distant parts of the Empire, some twenty-one being usually enumerated. These, as far as practicable, take the shortest course, are often cut into the mountain sides and even pass through tunnels. In the plains regions these roads may be sixty to seventy-five feet wide, paved and occasionally bordered by rows of trees. In some cases, too, signal towers are erected at intervals of three miles and there are inns along the way, relay posts and stations for soldiers.
我们之前讨论过成排种植谷物，以及在山上成排种植谷物。图130是一块田地，田垄成对种植，每行间距16英寸，总面积为30英寸。每行之间的间距也是30英寸，总面积为5英尺。这使得经常锄地成为可能，锄地通常在早春开始，并且每次下雨后重复施肥。这样还可以在植物能够最大程度利用养分时施肥，并根据需要重复施肥。此外，在更广阔的空间里，可以先整地、施肥，然后在移除第一茬作物之前种植另一茬作物。土丘交替排列，中心间距为24至26英寸。
We have spoken of planting grain in rows and in hills in the row. In Fig. 130 is a field with the rows planted in pairs, the members being 16 inches apart, and together occupying 30 inches. The space between each pair is also 30 inches, making five feet in all. This makes frequent hoeing practicable, which is begun early in the spring and is repeated after every rain. It also makes it possible to feed the plants when they can utilize food to the best advantage and to repeat the feeding if desirable. Besides, the ground in the wider space may be fitted, fertilized and another crop planted before the first is removed. The hills alternate in the rows and are 24 to 26 inches from center to center.
播种可以用手，也可以用图131所示的播种机。播种机结构简单，非常适合在山坡上播种。我们在他的村家门口见到了一位农夫，他刚从田里扛着播种机回来。他向我们解释了播种机的构造和操作方法，并允许我们拍照，但他把脸转向一边，不想让照片中出现任何人物。播种机里有一个沉重的铅块，在通向各个播种机脚的开口之间的上方摆动。播种时，操作者左右摇晃播种机，导致重物首先悬挂在一个开口上，然后悬挂在另一个开口上，从而确保每对行中的山丘交替出现。
The planting may be done by hand or with a drill such as that in Fig. 131, ingenious in the simple mechanism which permits planting in hills. The husbandman had just returned from the field with the drill on his shoulder when we met at the door of his village home, where he explained to us the construction and operation of the drill and permitted the photograph to be taken, but turning his face aside, not wishing to represent a specific character, in the view. In the drill there was a heavy leaden weight swinging free from a point above the space between the openings leading to the respective drill feet. When planting, the operator rocks the drill from side to side, causing the weight to hang first over one and then over the other opening, thus securing alternation of hills in each pair of rows.
图 130、山上成排种植的小麦，行距 30 英寸，行高 16 英寸，覆盖 5 英尺。
Fig. 130.—Wheat planted in hills and in rows, the pairs of rows being 30 inches apart and the rows 16 inches, covering 5 feet.
数了数多块田地里山上的麦穗，发现它们的数量在20到100之间，行距和山丘之间的距离如上所述。在土壤蓄水量大、地下水接近地表且土壤质量明显良好的地方，每座山的麦穗数量总是更多。这可能部分是由于土壤疏松，但我们毫不怀疑种植时是经过深思熟虑的，在土壤较轻、水分较少的地方播种较少。在刚才提到的文章中，在插图中，平均每座山有46根麦穗，每个麦穗的粒数在20到30粒之间。按照理查森估计的每磅小麦12000粒的产量，在这个异常干旱的季节，这块田地每英亩大约可以产出12蒲式耳的小麦。我们的翻译，他的父母住在卡奥米附近，往西四个车站，他说，在1901年，在他们最好的季节之一，那里的农民每合法刈割地的产量高达875斤，相当于每英亩116蒲式耳。在小面积、施肥良好、精心耕作、雨水充足或有灌溉的情况下，这样的产量是完全有可能的。我们在江苏省观察到一些小块土地的产量肯定接近这个数字。
Counting the heads of wheat in the hill in a number of fields showed them ranging between 20 and 100, the distance between the rows and between the hills as stated above. There were always a larger number of stalks per hill where the water capacity of the soil was large, where the ground water was near the surface, and where the soil was evidently of good quality. This may have been partly the result of stooling but we have little doubt that judgment was exercised in planting, sowing less seed on the lighter soils where less moisture was available. In the piece just referred to, in the illustration, an average hill contained 46 stalks and the number of kernels in a head varied between 20 and 30. Taking Richardson’s estimate of 12,000 kernels of wheat to the pound, this field would yield about twelve bushels of wheat per acre this unusually dry season. Our interpreter, whose parents lived near Kaomi, four stations further west, stated that in 1901,one of their best seasons, farmers there secured yields as high as 875 catty per legal mow, which is at the rate of 116 bushels per acre. Such a yield on small areas highly fertilized and carefully tilled, when the rainfall is ample or where irrigation is practiced, is quite possible and in the Kiangsu province we observed individual small fields which would certainly approach close to this figure.
图 131——双排播种机，刚从田里返回村里的家。
Fig. 131.—Double row seed-drill, just returning from the fields to the village home.
当天继续前行，我们来到一片田地，田里有三个人正在锄地、疏禾，其中有一个十四岁的男孩。在中国，天气炎热的时候，田里的男人唯一穿的衣服就是裤子。男孩觉得裤子没必要穿，不过我们和他父亲谈话的时候，他还是穿上了裤子。玉米的正常产量是每刈420到480斤，小米的产量是每英亩600斤，也就是60到68.5蒲式耳玉米和96蒲式耳小米，每英亩重50磅。按照通常的价格，玉米每英亩的总收入为23.48到26.83美元，小米每英亩的总收入为30.96美元。
Further along in our journey of the day we came upon a field where three, one of them a boy of fourteen years, were hoeing and thinning millet and maize. In China, during the hot weather, the only garment worn by the men in the field, was their trousers, and the boy had found these unnecessary, although he slipped into them while we were talking with his father. The usual yield of maize was set at 420 to 480 catty per mow, and that of millet at 600 catty, or 60 to 68.5 bushels of maize and 96 bushels of millet, of fifty pounds, per acre, and the usual price would make the gross earnings $23.48 to $26.83 per acre for the maize, and $30.96, gold, for the millet.
漫步田野，可以明显看出秋播的谷物比春播的大麦更能抵御干旱，这很可能是因为生长周期较长，根系发育得更深更强，部分原因是小麦的生长主要利用了大麦种植前降下的水分，而这些水分会通过土壤渗透和地表蒸发而流失。这里的农民非常注重锄地，从早春开始，而且总是在雨后，他们非常欣赏土覆盖物的功效。如图132所示，他们使用的锄头非常合适，宽阔的锄头悬挂在地上，几乎与地表平行，可以浅浅地挖出土，使土壤几乎直接落在松土的地方。这些锄头由三部分组成：木柄、坚固而沉重的长铁柄和钢制锄头。刀片可拆卸，可更换不同形状和尺寸的刀片用在同一个柄上。用于覆盖的刀片的刀刃可能长十三英寸，宽九英寸。
It was evident when walking through these fields that the fall-sowed grain was standing the drought far better than the barley planted in the spring, quite likely because of the deeper and stronger development of root system made possible by the longer period of growth, and partly because the wheat had made much of its growth utilizing water that had fallen before the barley was planted and which would have been lost from the soil through percolation and surface evaporation. Farmers here are very particular to hoe their grain, beginning in the early spring, and always after rains, thoroughly appreciating the efficiency of earth mulches. Their hoe, seen in Fig. 132, is peculiarly well adapted to its purpose, the broad blade being so hung that it draws nearly parallel with the surface, cutting shallow and permitting the soil to drop practically upon the place from which it was loosened. These hoes are made in three parts; a wooden handle, a long, strong and heavy iron socket shank, and a blade of steel. The blade is detachable and different forms and sizes of blades may be used on the same shank. The mulch-producing blades may have a cutting edge thirteen inches long and a width of nine inches.
在青岛和济南之间250英里的铁路沿线，每隔一段距离就能看到田地里堆放着许多堆肥土。图13—3中可以看到其中的一堆。它们有时位于尚未种植的田地里，有时位于即将收获的作物中，或者位于即将在地里种植其他作物的地方。有些堆肥土高达六英尺。所有堆肥土都是立方体状的，顶部平坦，并仔细地抹上一层土。砂浆有时会在干燥时开裂，如图所示。我们并不清楚这种精心塑形和抹灰的目的，尽管我们的翻译说这是为了防止堆肥被挪用到邻近的田地。这样的处理方式可以起到密封的作用，显示出堆肥是否被扰动过，但我们怀疑这种处理方式还有其他好处，因为它需要大量的劳动力。
At short intervals on either hand, along the two hundred and fifty miles of railway between Tsingtao and Tsinan, were observed many piles of earth compost distributed in the fields. One of these piles is seen in Fig. 133. They were sometimes on unplanted fields, in other cases they occurred among the growing crops soon to be harvested, or where another crop was to be planted between the rows of one already on the ground. Some of these piles were six feet high. All were built in cubical form with flat top and carefully plastered with a layer of earth mortar which sometimes cracked on drying, as seen in the illustration. The purpose of this careful shaping and plastering we did not learn although our interpreter stated it was to prevent the compost from being appropriated for use on adjacent fields. Such a finish would have the effect of a seal, showing if the pile had been disturbed, but we suspect other advantages are sought by the treatment, which involves so large an amount of labor.
图 132——使用宽而重的锄头进行地面覆盖的方法，如在中国山东所见。
Fig. 132.—Method of using the broad, heavy hoe in producing surface mulch, as seen in Shantung, China.
山东每年制备和使用的土壤堆肥量巨大，正如所列举的案例所示，其中一例每英亩作物施用的土壤堆肥量超过五千磅，另一例则超过七千磅。如果同一年在同一块土地上种植两种或两种以上的作物，则每种作物都需要施肥，因此每英亩耕地可施用三到六吨甚至更多。江苏、浙江和广东地区制备堆肥和施肥的方法已有描述。在山东这一地区、直隶以及远至奉天的满洲北部地区，方法大相径庭，甚至可能更加费力，但显然是合理且合理的。有效。在这里，几乎所有的肥料堆肥都是在村庄里制备的，然后运送到田地，无论这些田地有多远。
The amount of this earth compost prepared and used annually in Shantung is large, as indicated by the cases cited, where more than five thousand pounds, in one instance, and seven thousand pounds in another, were applied per acre for one crop. When two or more crops are grown the same year on the same ground, each is fertilized, hence from three to six or more tons may be applied to each cultivated acre. The methods of preparing compost and of fertilizing in Kiangsu, Chekiang and Kwangtung provinces have been described. In this part of Shantung, in Chihli and north in Manchuria as far as Mukden, the methods are materially different and if possible even more laborious, but clearly rational and effective. Here nearly if not all fertilizer compost is prepared in the villages and carried to the fields, however distant these may be.
图 133——中国山东省，精心涂抹的泥土堆肥堆放在田间等待分发。
Fig. 133.—Carefully plastered earth compost stacked in the field awaiting distribution, Shantung, China.
TJ League 牧师非常热情地陪同我们乘火车前往城阳。我们从那里步行大约两英里，回到一个繁荣的农村，去了解他们制作堆肥的方法。我们到达村庄时已是傍晚时分，从四面八方回来的农夫有的扛着锄头，有的扛着犁，有的肩上扛着条播机，还有的牵着驴或牛，日本也有类似的习俗，如图13—4所示。这些人大多是年轻人。当我们走到村里的街道上时，看到一些年纪较大的男人，他们和从田里回来的人一样，都光着头，通常辫子扎在头顶上，正在抽着烟斗。
Rev. T. J. League very kindly accompanied us to Cheng-yang on the railway, from which we walked some two miles back to a prosperous rural village to see their methods of preparing this compost fertilizer. It was toward the close of the afternoon before we reached the village, and from all directions husbandmen were returning from the fields, some with hoes, some with plows, some with drills over their shoulders and others leading donkeys or cattle, and similar customs obtain in Japan, as seen in Fig. 134. These were mostly the younger men. When we reached the village streets the older men, all bare-headed, as were those returning from the fields, and usually with their queues tied about the crown, were visiting, enjoying their pipes of tobacco.
在中国，鸦片已不再公开吸食，除非允许一些长期吸食且习惯已根深蒂固的人吸食，并且罂粟的种植也被禁止。违反法律的处罚非常严厉，据说执法严格有效。初犯将被处以罚款。如果第二次违法，罚款将加重，并处以监禁以帮助受害者自控，第三次定罪可能被判处死刑。根除鸦片祸害对中国来说无疑是一大幸事。但随着这一极其可怕的祸害的消亡——其对中国的危害主要由英国承担——不幸的是，由于英美烟草公司的无情行径，中国人民正迅速染上西方的烟草习惯，他们自私得无可原谅，污秽不堪，并且污染空气，破坏氧气，迫使所有人呼吸。它已经成为比鸦片更严重、更不可原谅的人类负担。
Opium is no longer used openly in China, unless it be permitted to some well along in years with the habit confirmed, and the growing of the poppy is prohibited. The penalties for violating the law are heavy and enforcement is said to be rigid and effective. For the first violation a fine is imposed. If convicted of a second violation the fine is heavier with imprisonment added to help the victim acquire self control, and a third conviction may bring the death penalty. The eradication of the opium scourge must prove a great blessing to China. But with the passing of this most formidable evil, for whose infliction upon China England was largely responsible, it is a great misfortune that through the pitiless efforts of the British-American Tobacco Company her people are rapidly becoming addicted to the western tobacco habit, selfish beyond excuse, filthy beyond measure, and unsanitary in its polluting and oxygen-destroying effect upon the air all are compelled to breathe. It has already become a greater and more inexcusable burden upon mankind than opium ever was.
中国已经负担过重，无力承担拨出一英亩以上的土地种植这种作物，就应该像禁止种植罂粟一样禁止种植烟草。让她现在就采取明智的措施，因为所有文明国家最终都将被迫采取这样的措施。1902年，美国有超过一百万英亩的土地种植烟草，收获了8.21亿磅烟叶。这些烟叶使土壤流失了超过2800万磅的氮、2900万磅的钾和近250万磅的磷，所有这些损失都无法挽回，即使是中国，凭借其卓越的节约技能和对小事的无限耐心，也无法为自己的土壤恢复这些损失。在同样的土地上，很容易种植2000万蒲式耳的小麦，如果将这12亿磅谷物全部出口，除了磷之外，对土壤的其他消耗都比种植烟草要小，而且磷的含量也差不多。回国后，中国会把这些钱全部返还到某个领域。
China, with her already overtaxed fields, can ill afford to give over an acre to the cultivation of this crop and she should prohibit the growing of tobacco as she has that of the poppy. Let her take the wise step now when she readily may, for all civilized nations will ultimately be compelled to adopt such a measure. The United States in 1902 had more than a million acres growing tobacco, and harvested 821,000,000 pounds of leaf. This leaf depleted those soils to the extent of more than twenty-eight million pounds of nitrogen, twenty-nine million pounds of potassium and nearly two and a half million pounds of phosphorus, all so irrecoverably lost that even China, with her remarkable skill in saving and her infinite patience with little things, could not recover them for her soils. On a like area of field might as readily be grown twenty million bushels of wheat and if the twelve hundred million pounds of grain were all exported it would deplete the soil less than the tobacco crop in everything but phosphorus, and in this about the same. Used at home, China would return it all to one or another field.
图 134、在日本，一天的工作结束后回家。
Fig. 134.—Home alter the day’s work, in Japan.
1902年，美国国内人均烟草消费量为7磅。而中国4亿人口的相同消费量则需要28亿磅烟叶。如果中国在自己的田地里种植，200万英亩的土地也不够。她的土壤将相应减少，小麦将短缺4000万蒲式耳；但如果中国继续进口烟草，这笔巨额资金既无法滋养她的田地，也无法为她的人民提供食物、衣服和教育；而如果中国继续进口小麦，同样的金额却可以养活她的饥民，并使其土地肥沃。
The home consumption of tobacco in the United States averaged seven pounds per capita in 1902. A like consumption for China’s four hundred millions would call for 2800 million pounds of leaf. If she grew it on her fields two million acres would not suffice. Her soils would be proportionately depleted and she would be short forty million bushels of wheat; but if China continues to import her tobacco the vast sum expended can neither fertilize her fields nor feed, clothe or educate her people, yet a like sum expended in the importation of wheat would feed her hungry and enrich her soils.
在节约国家资源方面，这是所有文明国家都面临的最大机遇之一。美国每年有5700万美元的资金，加上生烟叶的市场价格，以及将产品运送到那些吸烟者手中所需的土地、劳动力和资本，这些吸烟者将有毒物质喷洒到每个人都必须呼吸的空气中，污染街道、人行道、每个公共场所和交通工具的地板，污染数以百万计的痰盂、吸烟室和吸烟车。所有这些都是不必要的，也不应该被要求，但它们的安装和维护费用，无论是非吸烟者还是吸烟者，都必须承担，而这还是在一个民有、民享、民治的国家。这种昂贵、肮脏、自私的吸烟习惯应该被彻底根除。让这种行为从每一个新家庭开始，让母亲帮助父亲拒绝树立榜样，让公立学校和所有教育机构的每个人都绝对禁止这种行为。
In the matter of conservation of national resources here is one of the greatest opportunities open to all civilized nations. What might not be done in the United States with a fund of $57,000,000 annually, the market price of the raw tobacco leaf, and the land, the labor and the capital expended in getting the product to the men who puff, breathe and perspire the noxious product into the air everyone must breathe, and who bespatter the streets, sidewalks, the floor of every public place and conveyance, and befoul the million spittoons, smoking rooms and smoking cars, all unnecessary and should be uncalled for, but whose installation and up-keep the non-user as well as the user is forced to pay, and this in a country of, for and by the people. This costly, filthy, selfish tobacco habit should be outgrown. Let it begin in every new home, where the mother helps the father in refusing to set the example, and let its indulgence be absolutely prohibited to everyone while in public school and to all in educational institutions.
利格先生拿到了一封介绍信，介绍给村里一位主要的农民。我们刚走到他家门口，碰巧遇见了他儿子，他刚从田里回来，肩上扛着播种机。图131就是他，手里拿着介绍信。我们拍完这张照片和另一张照片后，我们从同一个地方俯瞰着狭窄的街道，被带到了房子小小的露天庭院，大概40英尺乘80英尺，所有平房的门都开在庭院里。庭院干燥，没有任何绿色植物，只有一排高大俊美的树木，它们是我们家三角叶杨的近亲，树干到枝干长达30英尺，越过低矮的茅草屋屋顶，俯视着庭院。在这里，我们遇到了那个拿着电钻的男人的父亲和祖父。加上怀里抱着婴儿的男孩（他在街口遇见了他的父亲），我们见面的有四代男人。家里也有女人和女孩，但按照习俗，她们在这种场合必须保持安静。
Mr. League had been given a letter of introduction to one of the leading farmers of the village and it chanced that as we reached the entranceway to his home we were met by his son, just returning from the fields with his drill on his shoulder, and it is he standing in the illustration, Fig. 131, holding the letter of introduction in his hand. After we had taken this photograph and another one looking down the narrow street from the same point, we were led to the small open court of the home, perhaps forty by eighty feet, upon which all doors of the one-storied structures opened. It was dry and bare of everything green, but a row of very tall handsome trees, close relatives of our cottonwood, with trunks thirty feet to the limbs, looked down into the court over the roofs of the low thatched houses. Here we met the father and grandfather of the man with the drill, so that, with the boy carrying the baby in his arms, who had met his father in the street gateway, there were four generations of males at our conference. There were women and girls in the household but custom requires them to remain in retirement on such occasions.
一张矮矮窄窄的四脚凳，跟我们木匠的锯木架很像，五英尺长，被搬进院子里当座位，我们和主人共用一张。我们也曾在浙江省吴太太家受到过类似的招待。我们右边是通往厨房的敞开的门，厨房里站着一家之主瘦高挺拔的身影，他的眼睛依然乌黑发亮，但头发和稀疏的长胡须却呈现出均匀的暗灰色。中国人的头发似乎不会随着年龄的增长而变白。他似乎承担了厨师的职责，因为我们在的时候，他在厨房里生火，忙个不停，但对于年轻人之间在回答问题时出现的任何意见分歧，他总是最终做出裁决。厨房旁边是两间卧室，正如第142页所述，做饭的余热通过宽大的炕床散发出去，构成了院子的这一侧。我们左边是主街，被一堵和屋檐一样高的坚固土墙完全挡住。我们前面，紧邻街道的是粪堆，一个六英尺深、约八英尺见方的堆肥坑。街墙上有一个低矮的开口，可以清空粪堆，并接收田地里的泥土、残茬或垃圾进行堆肥。紧邻粪堆，没有隔断，但与庭院隔开的是猪舍，它们都位于一个共同的屋顶下，屋顶由一个封闭的建筑物连接，并与卧室相连。在我们身后，沿着我们进来的小巷，还有其他的居住和储藏室。就这样，这个四代同堂的大家庭拥有了一个格外私密的露天庭院，他们可以在那里工作，也可以出来晒晒太阳，而以我们的标准来看，这两项在普通房屋里都太少了。
A low narrow four-legged bench, not unlike our carpenter’s saw-horse, five feet long, was brought into the court as a seat, which our host and we occupied in common. We had been similarly received at the home of Mrs, Wu in Chekiang province. On our right was the open doorway to the kitchen in which stood, erect and straight, the tall spare figure of the patriarch of the household, his eyes still shining black but with hair and long thin straggling beard a uniform dull ashen gray. No Chinese hair, it seems, ever becomes white with age. He seemed to have assumed the duties of cook for while we were there he lighted the fire in the kitchen and was busy, but was always the final oracle on any matter of difference of opinion between the younger men regarding answers to questions. Two sleeping apartments adjoining the kitchen, through whose wide kang beds the waste heat from the cooking was conveyed, as described on page 142, completed this side of the court. On our left was the main street completely shut off by a solid earth wall as high as the eaves of the house, while in front of us, adjoining the street, was the manure midden, a compost pit six feet deep and some eight feet square. A low opening in the street wall permitted the pit to be emptied and to receive earth and stubble or refuse from the fields for composting. Against the pit and without partition, but cut off from the court, was the home of the pigs, both under a common roof continuous with a closed structure joining with the sleeping apartments, while behind us and along the alleyway by which we had entered were other dwelling and storage compartments. Thus was the large family of four generations provided with a peculiarly private open court where they could work and come out for sun and air, both, from our standards, too meagerly provided in the houses.
图 135——中国山东省农村街道上堆满了土堆和用作肥料的堆肥。
Fig. 135.—Farm village street with stacks of earth and piles of compost for use as fertilizer, Shantung, China.
我们来这里是为了进一步了解这些人的施肥方法。我们面前是粪堆，从地里运来的用于施肥的土堆堆放在街道上，我们在入口处拍了照片，如图135所示。一位父亲叼着烟斗，和两个男孩站在最左边；他们再过去，是一大堆运进村里的土，小心翼翼地堆放在狭窄的街道上；在街道的另一边，在第一栋建筑的拐角处，有一堆从墙后的坑里扔出来的部分发酵的堆肥。沿着街道往前走，在同一侧，还有第二大堆土，两个男孩站在两端，另一个小男孩站在附近的门口。在街道左侧的树前，站着第三个男孩，在他旁边是一头小驴，还有另一个男孩。在这个男孩的后面，还有第三大堆土，而在这更远的地方，在马路对面，还有另一堆部分发酵的土。尽管前面插图中描绘的牛群、驴子、男人、男孩、三堆高高的土堆和两堆堆肥，这条十杆宽的窄街仍然拥有宽阔的通行道路，而且干净得令人难以置信。每家农户的街上都有一堆土。我们穿过村庄时，看到几十个男人正在翻动、混合土壤和堆肥，为田间做准备。
We had come to learn more of the methods of fertilizing practiced by these people. The manure midden was before us and the piles of earth brought in from the fields, for use in the process, were stacked in the street, where we had photographed them at the entrance, as seen in Fig. 135. There a father, with his pipe, and two boys stand at the extreme left; beyond them is a large pile of earth brought into the village and carefully stacked in the narrow street; on the other side of the street, at the corner of the first building, is a pile of partly fermented compost thrown from a pit behind the walls. Further along in the street, on the same side, is a second large stack of soil where two boys are standing at either end and another little boy was in a near-by doorway. In front of the tree, on the left side of the street, stands a third boy, near him a small donkey and still another boy. Beyond this boy stands a third large stack of soil, while still beyond and across the way is another pile partly composted. Notwithstanding the cattle in the preceding illustration, the donkey, the men, the boys, the three long high stacks of soil and the two piles of compost, the ten rods of narrow street possessed a width of available travelway and a cleanliness which would appear impossible. Each farmer’s household had its stack of soil in the street, and in walking through the village we passed dozens of men turning and mixing the soil and compost, preparing it for the field.
我们坐的地方前面的堆肥坑占了三分之二填满了。里面堆满了所有家庭和街道的肥料和垃圾，所有田地里的残茬和废弃粗饲料，所有不能直接施肥的灰烬，以及一些堆放在街道上的土壤。不时地加入足够的水，使内容物完全饱和，几乎被淹没，目的是控制发酵的特性。
The compost pit in front of where we sat was two-thirds filled. In it had been placed all of the manure and waste of the household and street, all stubble and waste roughage from the field, all ashes not to be applied directly and some of the soil stacked in the street. Sufficient water was added at intervals to keep the contents completely saturated and nearly submerged, the object being to control the character of fermentation taking place.
这些堆肥坑的容量取决于所服务的土地面积，并且堆肥时间尽可能长，目的是将所有有机材料的纤维完全分解，结果是砂浆稠度的产物。
The capacity of these compost pits is determined by the amount of land served, and the period of composting is made as long as possible, the aim being to have the fiber of all organic material completely broken down, the result being a product of the consistency of mortar.
当快要将堆肥施用于田地或作物时，发酵后的产物会被装在防水的篮子里，搬到庭院的地面、院子（如图126所示）或街道上。在那里，它会被摊开晾干，然后与新鲜土壤和更多的灰烬混合，并反复翻动搅拌，以完全通气并加速硝化过程。在所有这些处理过程中，无论是在堆肥坑还是在硝化层，与土壤接触的发酵有机物都会将植物养分元素转化为可溶性植物养分，这些养分的形式包括硝酸钾、钙和镁，以及各种形式的可溶性磷酸盐，这些物质可能是相同的碱，也可能是其他有机类型。如果在作物需要之前，田地土壤中有足够的时间和适宜的温度和湿度条件进行这些发酵，那么可以将堆肥直接从堆肥坑运到田地，撒播，然后犁地。否则，这些材料会被反复加工，必要时还会加水，直到变成肥沃的完全肥料。待其干燥后，再进行细磨，有时还会用牛、驴或手工拉动的石碾。青岛和济南之间田野里看到的大量堆肥就是这种类型，因此，这些堆肥是在村里辛苦准备的。然后运送到田地，堆放并抹灰，以备下次种植使用。
When it is near the time for applying the compost to the field, or of feeding it to the crop, the fermented product is removed in waterproof carrying baskets to the floor of the court, to the yard, such as seen in Fig. 126, or to the street, where it is spread to dry, to be mixed with fresh soil, more ashes, and repeatedly turned and stirred to bring about complete aeration and to hasten the processes of nitrification. During all of these treatments, whether in the compost pit or on the nitrification floor, the fermenting organic matter in contact with the soil is converting plant food elements into soluble plant food substances in the form of potassium, calcium and magnesium nitrates and soluble phosphates of one or another form, perhaps of the same bases and possibly others of organic type. If there is time and favorable temperature and moisture conditions for these fermentations to take place in the soil of the field before the crop will need it, the compost may be carried direct from the pit to the field and spread broadcast, to be plowed under. Otherwise the material is worked and reworked, with more water added if necessary, until it becomes a rich complete fertilizer, allowed to become dry and then finely pulverized, sometimes using stone rollers drawn over it by cattle, the donkey or by hand. The large numbers of stacks of compost seen in the fields between Tsingtao and Tsinan were of this type and thus laboriously prepared in the villages and then transported to the fields, stacked and plastered, to be ready for use at next planting.
在欧洲历史的早期，在现代化学提供更廉价、更快捷的生产硝酸钾（用于制造火药和烟花）的方法之前，人们投入了大量的土地和精力进行硝石种植，这无非是这种最古老中国做法的具体应用，很可能是从中国传入的。直到1877年至1879年，科学家们才认识到，农业中不可或缺的硝化过程是由细菌生命完成的。为了公平起见，也 ...因此，早在1686年，我们就在历史上发现，塞缪尔·卢厄尔法官就在他的日记封面上抄录了一位实践者制作硝石床的配方，其中指示，除其他事项外，还要添加“硝石母”。卢厄尔法官认为，硝石母指的是从旧硝石床中得到的土壤。但在使用“母”这个前缀的人看来，它一定是指土壤中蕴含的、能够繁衍后代并延续其特有功能的活性菌种，与古老、熟悉、朴素的醋母菌同属一类。同样，那位老奶酪制造商也领悟了这一理念，并因此长期用同类型的老工厂的水清洗新奶酪厂的墙壁。他一定是通过经验的类比，意识到自己正在处理一个至关重要的因素。当然，已经有数百人进行了实践，但有人已经提出了基本思想，我们觉得，对于我们这个时代的人来说，在十年或二十年之后，经过多年的技术训练，他们将注意力集中在可见的事物上，并配备了复式显微镜，使他们能够用肉眼看到“彼得之母”，并自诩为发现了一个伟大的真理。在长期怀疑这种实体的存在之后，我们终于成功地完全证实了一项伟大发现的真实性，这或许会更加谦虚，也更能体现出给予应有赞扬的精神。这项发现属于一位不知名的过去天才，或者属于一百位与生命过程打交道、并通过长期密切接触而熟悉这些过程的天才，他们在这些看不见的过程中看到了相似之处，这些相似之处向他们揭示了本质真理，并使他们能够在此基础上建立起一种行之有效的实践。
In the early days of European history, before modern chemistry had provided the cheaper and more expeditious method of producing potassium nitrate for the manufacture of gunpowder and fireworks, much land and effort were devoted to niter-farming which was no other than a specific application of this most ancient Chinese practice and probably imported from China. While it was not until 1877 to 1879 that men of science came to know that the processes of nitrification, so indispensable to agriculture, are due to germ life, in simple justice to the plain farmers of the world, to those who through all the ages from Adam down, living close to Nature and working through her and with her, have fed the world, it should be recognized that there have been those among them who have grasped such essential, vital truths and have kept them alive in the practices of their day. And so we find it recorded in history as far back as 1686 that Judge Samuel Lewell copied upon the cover of his journal a practical man’s recipe for making saltpeter beds, in which it was directed, among other things, that there should be added to it “mother of petre”, meaning, in Judge Lewell’s understanding, simply soil from an old niter bed, but in the mind of the man who applied the maternity, prefix,—mother,—it must have meant a vital germ contained in the soil, carried with it, capable of reproducing its kind and of perpetuating its characteristic work, belonging to the same category with the old, familiar, homely germ, “mother” of vinegar. So, too, with the old cheesemaker who grasped the conception which led to the long time practice of washing the walls of a new cheese factory with water from an old factory of the same type, he must have been led by analogies of experience with things seen to realize that he was here dealing with a vital factor. Hundreds, of course, have practiced empyrically, but some one preceded with the essential thought and we feel it is small credit to men of our time who, after ten or twenty years of technical training, having their attention directed to a something to be seen, and armed with compound microscopes which permit them to see with the physical eye the “mother of petre”, arrogate to themselves the discovery of a great truth. Much more modest would it be and much more in the spirit of giving credit where credit is due to admit that, after long doubting the existence of such an entity, we have succeeded in confirming in fullness the truth of a great discovery which belongs to an unnamed genius of the past, or perhaps to a hundred of them who, working with life’s processes and familiar with them through long intimate association, saw in these invisible processes analogies that revealed to them the essential truth in such fullness as to enable them to build upon it an unfailing practice.
中国人还有另一种做法，与土壤中硝酸盐的形成有关，这再次强调了中国人节约和利用一切有用资源的民族特性。四川省顺庆的AE Evans牧师提醒我们注意这一做法。它基于住宅泥土地面在自然硝化过程中容易积聚大量硝酸钙的趋势。硝酸钙易潮解，吸收足够的水分后溶解，使地板变得湿润黏稠。Evans博士注意到自己家中地板潮湿的问题，起初他将此归咎于通风不足，但无法通过改善通风来解决这个问题。他的一位助手的父亲负责购买用于生产硝酸钾的泥土，而硝酸钾在中国大量用于制造烟花和火药。他解释了自己的困境并提出了解决办法。
There is another practice followed by the Chinese, connected with the formation of nitrates in soils, which again emphasizes the national trait of saving and turning to use any and every thing worth while. Our attention was called to this practice by Rev. A. E. Evans of Shunking, Szechwan province. It rests upon the tendency of the earth floors of dwellings to become heavily charged with calcium nitrate through the natural processes of nitrification. Calcium nitrate being deliquescent absorbs moisture sufficiently to dissolve and make the floor wet and sticky. Dr. Evans’ attention was drawn to the wet floor in his own house, which he at first ascribed to insufficient ventilation, but which he was unable to remedy by improving that. The father of one of his assistants, whose business consisted in purchasing the soil of such floors for producing potassium nitrate, used so much in China in the manufacture of fireworks and gunpowder, explained his difficulty and suggested the remedy.
这个人走遍村子，挨家挨户地收购那些被抬高价钱的地板的泥土。他取样，测试，然后宣布他愿意为两英寸、三英寸或四英寸的地板付多少钱，有时价格高达五毛钱。业主有权移除地板表层，业主必须将其重新铺设。他过滤掉移除的土壤，以回收硝酸钙，然后将过滤后的溶液倒入含有碳酸钾的植物灰中，将硝酸钙转化为硝酸钾或硝石。埃文斯博士了解到，在我们采访前的四个月里，该男子生产的硝酸钾足以使他的销售额达到80美元墨西哥比索。他需要两天的路程才能将产品推向市场。此外，他每月还要支付80美分的许可费。他必须购买燃料灰并雇佣两名工人。
This man goes from house to house through the village, purchasing the soil of floors which have thus become overcharged. He procures a sample, tests it and announces what he will pay for the surface two, three or four inches, the price sometimes being as high as fifty cents for the privilege of removing the top layer of the floor, which the proprietors must replace. He leaches the soil removed, to recover the calcium nitrate, and then pours the leachings through plant ashes containing potassium carbonate, for the purpose of transforming the calcium nitrate into the potassium nitrate or saltpeter. Dr. Evans learned that during the four months preceding our interview this man had produced sufficient potassium nitrate to bring his sales up to $80, Mexican. It was necessary for him to make a two-days journey to market his product. In addition he paid a license fee of 80 cents per month. He must purchase his fuel ashes and hire the services of two men.
如果住宅地面上积聚的硝酸盐未被收集起来，土壤就会被直接用作肥料，或者被制成堆肥。随着时间的推移，用于建造村庄墙壁甚至房屋的泥土可能会腐烂，需要清除。但在所有这些情况下，就像炕上用的土砖一样，土壤的堆肥价值得到了提升，并且通常都被用作堆肥。土壤的这种改良作用并不奇怪，因为这些材料通常来自底土，底土的物理状态在暴露于风雨后会得到改善，实际上会变成未耕种的处女地。
When the nitrates which accumulate in the floors of dwellings are not collected for this purpose the soil goes to the fields to be used directly as a fertilizer, or it may be worked into compost. In the course of time the earth used in the village walls and even in the construction of the houses may disintegrate so as to require removal, but in all such cases, as with the earth brick used in the kangs, the value of the soil has improved for composting and is generally so used. This improvement of the soil will not appear strange when it is stated that such materials are usually from the subsoil, whose physical condition would improve when exposed to the weather, converting it in fact into an uncropped virgin soil.
我们无法获得关于这些堆肥化学成分的确切数据，也无法确定山东农民每年返还田地的植物养分量。然而，几乎可以肯定的是，这些养分的量与作物吸收的养分相当。土壤似乎富含有机质，叶片的颜色和作物的整体外观也表明养分供应充足。
We were unable to secure definite data as to the chemical composition of these composts and cannot say what amounts of available plant food the Shantung farmers are annually returning to their fields. There can be little doubt, however, that the amounts are quite equal to those removed by the crops. The soils appeared well supplied with organic matter and the color of the foliage and the general aspect of crops indicated good feeding.
我们在村里采访的那户人家说，他们家的小麦每刈通常产量是 420 斤，稻草 1000 斤，*每刈谷价值 35 串钱和稻草各12到14串，当时墨西哥一串钱值40美分。他们种植的豆子可以给他们带来30串钱和8到10串稻草的回报。小黍通常每刈产450斤谷物，价值25串钱，800斤稻草价值10到11串钱；大黍每刈产400斤，价值25串钱，1000斤稻草价值12到14串钱。以每英亩蒲式耳和我们的货币计算，小麦每英亩产量为42蒲式耳谷物和6000磅稻草，谷物现金价值27.09美元，稻草现金价值10.06美元。小麦之后种植大豆，大豆的额外收益为23.22美元，秸秆的额外收益为6.97美元，两种作物的总收入为每英亩67.34美元。小黍每英亩产量为54蒲式耳种子和4800磅秸秆，种子价值27.09美元，秸秆价值8.12美元；高粱或大黍每英亩产量为48蒲式耳谷物和6000磅秸秆，谷物价值19.35美元，秸秆价值10.06美元。
The family with whom we talked in the village place their usual yields of wheat at 420 catty of grain and 1000 catty of straw per mow,* the grain being worth 35 strings of cash and the straw 12 to 14 strings, a string of cash being 40 cents, Mexican, at this time. Their yields of beans were such as to give them a return of 30 strings of cash for the grain and 8 to 10 strings for the straw. Small millet usually yielded 450 catty of grain, worth 25 strings of cash, per mow, and 800 catty of straw worth 10 to 11 strings of cash; while the yields of large millet they placed at 400 catty per mow, worth 25 strings of cash, and 1000 catty of straw worth 12 to 14 strings of cash. Stating these amounts in bushels per acre and in our currency, the yield of wheat was 42 bushels of grain and 6000 pounds of straw per acre, having a cash value of $27.09 for the grain and $10.06 for the straw. The soy bean crop follows the wheat, giving an additional return of $23.22 for the beans and $6.97 for the straw, making the gross earning for the two crops $67.34 per acre. The yield of small millet was 54 bushels of seed and 4800 pounds of straw per acre, worth $27.09 and $8.12 for seed and straw respectively, while the kaoliang or large millet gave a yield of 48 bushels of grain and 6000 pounds of stalks per acre, worth $19.35 for the grain, and $10.06 for the straw.
一茬小麦，如果谷粒或秸秆中所含的养分不返回田地，将使土壤损失约90磅氮、15磅磷和65磅钾；如果一茬大豆也全部返回田地，则土壤中这三种养分元素将减少约240磅氮、33磅磷和102磅钾，以每英亩45蒲式耳大豆和5400磅茎叶计算，假设大豆不会给土壤增加氮，但这当然是不正确的。因此，为了维持土壤的这种生产能力，这户农民不得不每年以各种形式，每英亩至少返回48磅磷和167磅钾。他们必须以有机物或……的形式返回330磅氮。通过种植大豆或其他豆科植物，从大气中积累养分。前面已经提到，他们确实添加了超过5000到7000磅的干堆肥，如果再种植一茬作物，每年每英亩土地的干堆肥用量将达到5到7吨。除了这些堆肥外，他们还会使用大量的豆饼和花生饼，这些豆饼和花生饼中含有豆类和花生所含的、来自土壤的所有植物养分。如果给葡萄藤施肥，或者将豆茎用作燃料，其中的大部分植物养分都会回归田地。毫无疑问，他们已经学会了如何完全恢复作物所带走的植物养分，并且坚持这样做。
A crop of wheat like the one stated, if no part of the plant food contained in the grain or straw were returned to the field, would deplete the soil to the extent of about 90 pounds of nitrogen, 15 pounds of phosphorus and 65 pounds of potassium; and the crop of soy beans, if it also were entirely removed, would reduce these three plant food elements in the soil to the extent of about 240 pounds of nitrogen, 33 pounds of phosphorus and 102 pounds of potassium, on the basis of 45 bushels of beans and 5400 pounds of stems and leaves per acre, assuming that the beans added no nitrogen to the soil, which is of course not true. This household of farmers, therefore, in order to have maintained this producing power in their soil, have been compelled to return to it annually, in one form or another, not less than 48 pounds of phosphorus and 167 pounds of potassium per acre. The 330 pounds of nitrogen they would have to return in the form of organic matter or accumulate it from the atmosphere, through the instrumentality of their soy bean crop or some other legume. It has already been stated that they do add more than 5000 to 7000 pounds of dry compost, which, repeated for a second crop, would make an annual application of five to seven tons of dry compost per acre annually. They do use, in addition to this compost, large amounts of bean and peanut cake, which carry all of the plant food elements derived from the soil which are contained in the beans and the peanuts. If the vines are fed, or if the stems of the beans are burned for fuel, most of the plant food elements in these will be returned to the field, and they have doubtless learned how to completely restore the plant food elements removed by their crops, and persistently do so.
图 136——中国山东省用于磨大豆和花生的石磨。
Fig. 136.—Stone mill for grinding soy beans and peanuts, Shantung, China.
德国人在青岛附近修建的道路使我们能够乘坐人力车前往邻近的国家，在一次这样的旅行中，我们参观了一个村庄的磨坊，该磨坊用于磨大豆和花生以生产油，图 136显示了直径四英尺、两英尺厚的石滚筒，它绕着垂直的一头驴子拉着一个圆形石板上的轴，碾碎谷粒，一部分靠自己的重量，一部分靠扭转，因为滚筒旋转的臂很短。豆粕磨碎后，榨油的方式与棉籽榨油的方式基本相同，但豆饼和花生饼比棉籽饼大得多，直径约 18 英寸，厚度 3 到 4 英寸。图 10-7中可以看到两个这样的饼，它们竖立在磨坊外面一个整洁的院子里。这种形式的豆饼被大量出口到中国各地，近年来还出口到日本，用作肥料，最近又被运往欧洲，用作牲畜饲料和肥料。
The roads made by the Germans in the vicinity of Tsingtao enabled us to travel by ricksha into the adjoining country, and on one such trip we visited a village mill for grinding soy beans and peanuts in the manufacture of oil, and Fig. 136 shows the stone roller, four feet in diameter and two feet thick, which is revolved about a vertical axis on a circular stone plate, drawn by a donkey, crushing the kernels partly by its weight and partly by a twisting motion, for the arm upon which the roller revolves is very short. After the meal had been ground the oil was expressed in essentially the same way as that described for the cotton seed, but the bean and peanut cakes are made much larger than the cotton seed cakes, about eighteen inches in diameter and three to four inches thick. Two of these cakes are seen in Fig. 137, standing on edge outside the mill in an orderly clean court. It is in this form that bean cake is exported in large quantities to different parts of China, and to Japan in recent years, for use as fertilizer, and very recently it is being shipped to Europe for both stock food and fertilizer.
图 137——中国山东省村庄磨坊外的两个大花生饼和一个盛油的纸质大肚瓶。
Fig. 137.—Two large peanut cakes and a paper demijohn for containing the oil, outside the village mill, Shantung, China.
在这个省份，甚至更北的地方，我们都没有看到南方广泛使用的大型陶土容器来储存人类排泄物。在这些干燥的气候条件下，人们会采取某种干燥方法，我们发现青岛附近的园丁们把大量的肥料堆放在草席遮蔽的棚子里。干燥状态的肥料，在施用之前会以各种方式磨成细粉。下一幅插图（图 138）展示了其中一堆肥料被堆在花园里，它的茅草棚就站在一户人家的祖父身后。他的孙子正把准备好的肥料搬到花园里（图 139），而父亲则在那里把肥料施入土壤。他们煞费苦心，既要把肥料磨成细粉，又要把它撒在土壤里并与土壤混合，因为他们的土壤管理准则之一就是使每一平方英尺的田地或花园都具有同等的生产能力。通过这种方式，每一小块土地都能在农夫能够控制的条件下获得最高的收益。
Nowhere in this province, nor further north, did we see the large terra cotta receptacles so extensively used in the south for storing human excreta. In these dryer climates some method of desiccation is practiced and we found the gardeners in the vicinity of Tsingtao with quantities of the fertilizer stacked under matting shelters in the desiccated condition, this being finely pulverized in one or another way before it was applied. The next illustration, Fig. 138, shows one of these piles being fitted for the garden, its thatched shelter standing behind the grandfather of a household. His grandson was carrying the prepared fertilizer to the garden area seen in Fig. 139, where the father was working it into the soil. The greatest pains is taken, both in reducing the product to a fine powder and in spreading and incorporating it with the soil, for one of their maxims of soil management is to make each square foot of field or garden the equal of every other in its power to produce. In this manner each little holding is made to yield the highest returns possible under the conditions the husbandman is able to control.
图 138——中国山东省，将干燥的人类排泄物粉碎，准备用于花园施肥。
Fig. 138.—Pulverizing desiccated human excreta preparatory for use in garden fertilization, Shantung, China.
在正在修整的土地上，一部分已经收获了蒿属植物，每英亩总收益为73.19美元；另一部分则收获了韭菜，每英亩总收益为43.86美元。这块土地正在修整，主要种植的是芹菜。
From one portion of the area being fitted, a crop of artemisia had been harvested, giving a gross return at the rate of $73.19 per acre, and from another leeks had been taken, bringing a gross return of $43.86 per acre. Chinese celery was the crop for which the ground was being fitted.
将土壤作为肥料应用于无论是源自底土，还是源自运河河流的淤泥和有机质，中国土壤的养分在远东农业的持久发展中都发挥了重要作用，因为所有这些附加物都对有效土壤产生了积极的增生作用，增加了土壤的深度，并为其提供了所有植物所需的养分。即使山东田地中施用的堆肥重量中不超过一半是高肥力土壤，按照观察到的施用量，一千年后，每英亩土地的养分含量将超过200万磅，这大约相当于我们日常耕作中用犁翻动的土壤体积，而这些优质土壤可能含有超过6000磅的氮、2000磅的磷和超过6万磅的钾。
The application of soil as a fertilizer to the fields of China, whether derived from the subsoil or from the silts and organic matter of canals and rivers, must have played an important part in the permanency of agriculture in the Far East, for all such additions have been positive accretions to the effective soil, increasing its depth and carrying to it all plant food elements. If not more than one-half of the weight of compost applied to the fields of Shantung is highly fertilized soil, the rates of application observed would, in a thousand years, add more than two million pounds per acre, and this represents about the volume of soil we turn with the plow in our ordinary tillage operations, and this amount of good soil may carry more than 6000 pounds of nitrogen, 2000 pounds of phosphorus and more than 60,000 pounds of potassium.
图 139——5 月 24 日，中国山东，园丁正在将肥料与土壤充分混合，准备种植本季的第二茬作物。
Fig. 139.—Gardener thoroughly incorporating fertilizer with his soil preparatory to planting a second crop of the season, May 24th, Shantung, China.
我们离开酒店，坐黄包车前往轮船，返回上海。不久，我们注意到一个十三四岁的男孩跟在后面，有时走在前面，有时走在后面，通常沿着人行道行走，但每当黄包车夫走过来时，他就会放慢脚步。到码头足足有一英里路。这男孩显然知道船期表，他从前面的手提箱判断出我们要乘坐出发的轮船，他大概能赚到两分钱（墨西哥币），这是把一个手提箱带上轮船的常规费用。码头上可能有二十个人在等着这项任务，但他还是冒险一试，加上往返一英里的路程，而且所有这些花费不到我们当时的货币一分钱，相当于二十个“现钞”。当我们靠近轮船时，男孩跟在后面，但身强力壮、热切的人们仍在注视着我们。他两次被粗暴地推到一边，黄包车还没停下，一个身材魁梧的男人就抢走了他的手提箱。要不是我们注意到这个男孩如此悄无声息地参加了比赛，他恐怕只会白白浪费自己的时间。这里的生存竞争如此激烈，一个区区小伙子竟然如此积极地投入其中。他不愧是出身名门，不遗余力地争取胜利，最终收获的远超预期，这让他既惊喜又感激。
When we left our hotel by ricksha for the steamer, returning to Shanghai, we soon observed a boy of thirteen or fourteen years apparently following, sometimes a little ahead, sometimes behind, usually keeping the sidewalk but slackening his pace whenever the ricksha man came to a walk. It was a full mile to the wharf. The boy evidently knew the sailing schedule and judged by the valise in front, that we were to take the out-going steamer and that he might possibly earn two cents, Mexican, the usual fee for taking a valise aboard the steamer. Twenty men at the wharf might be waiting for the job, but he was taking the chance with the mile down and back thrown in, and all for less than one cent in our currency, equivalent at the time to about twenty “cash”. As we neared the steamer the lad closed up behind but strong and eager men were watching. Twice he was roughly thrust aside and before the ricksha stopped a man of stalwart frame seized the valise and, had we not observed the boy thus unobtrusively entering the competition, he would have had only his trouble for his pains. Thus intense was the struggle here for existence and thus did a mere lad put himself effectively into it. True to breeding and example he had spared no labor to win and was surprised but grateful to receive more than he had expected.
*他们的修剪距离是法定标准修剪距离的三分之四。
* Their mow was four-thirds of the legal standard mow.
XI.
ORIENTALS CROWD BOTH TIME AND SPACE.
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时间是每个生命过程的函数，如同所有物理、化学和精神反应一样，农夫不得不调整自己的作业方式，以适应作物生长的时间需求。东方农民是最节省时间的人。他充分利用了第一分钟、最后一分钟以及其间的所有时间。外国人指责中国人总是“守时”，从不烦躁，从不着急。既然他能把握时间，充分利用一切，那又何必呢？
Time is a function of every life process, as it is of every physical, chemical and mental reaction, and the husbandman is compelled to shape his operations so as to conform with the time requirements of his crops. The oriental farmer is a time economizer beyond any other. He utilizes the first and last minute and all that are between. The foreigner accuses the Chinaman of being always “long on time”, never in a fret, never in a hurry. And why should he be when he leads time by the forelock, and uses all there is?
这些远东人民的习俗和做法包括制造堆肥用于田地，以及利用曾经用于炕、村墙和住所的改良底土。这些做法大大缩短了田间进行必要的化学、物理和生物反应所需的时间，从而将植物养分转化为养分。他们不仅增加了时间资产，而且通过在田间进行这些改变，同时为作物提供直接有效的土壤产物，实际上也增加了土地面积。
The customs and practices of these Farthest East people regarding their manufacture of fertilizers in the form of earth composts for their fields, and their use of altered subsoils which have served in their kangs, village walls and dwellings, are all instances where they profoundly shorten the time required in the field to affect the necessary chemical, physical and biological reactions which produce from them plant food substances. Not only do they thus increase their time assets, but they add, in effect, to their land area by producing these changes outside their fields, at the same time giving their crops the immediately active soil products.
他们的堆肥实践对他们来说至关重要，无论是在极其潮湿的稻米种植方法中，还是在“旱作”实践中，土壤水分长期过少，无法在田间条件下快速发酵。西方农学家尚未充分认识到，土壤中植物养分物质的最快速生长不可能与作物的最快速增长同时发生，因为这两个过程都需要利用土壤中可用的水分、土壤空气以及可溶性钾、钙、磷和氮化合物。无论这一实用农业的基本原则是否记载在他们的文献中，它都深深地印刻在他们的实践中。如果我们和他们能够以节省大量人力的方式延续这一实践的精髓，或者以某种更快捷、更省力的方式永久地确保最终结果，那么我们将取得最重要的进步。
Their compost practices have been of the greatest consequence to them, both in their extremely wet, rice-culture methods, and in their “dry-farming” practices, where the soil moisture is too scanty during long periods to permit rapid fermentation under field conditions. Western agriculturalists have not sufficiently appreciated the fact that the most rapid growth of plant food substances in the soil cannot occur at the same time and place with the most rapid crop increase, because both processes draw upon the available soil moisture, soil air and soluble potassium, calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. Whether this fundamental principle of practical agriculture is written in their literature or not it is most indelibly fixed in their practice. If we and they can perpetuate the essentials of this practice at a large saving of human effort, or perpetually secure the final result in some more expeditious and less laborious way, most important progress will have been made.
图 140。透过水库和四人脚踏泵，可以看到窄床上播种的稻田。水泵用来将水抽到稻田里。
Fig. 140.—Looking across reservoir and four-man foot-power pump, used to lift water to a nursery rice bed, at fields of grain sowed broadcast in narrow beds.
当我们北上山东时，江苏和浙江的农民正在从事另一项节省时间、也需要大量人力的劳动。那就是在小麦尚未成熟时在麦田里种植棉花。收获。在我们访问的这两个省份的地区，大部分小麦和大麦都撒播在大约五英尺宽的狭长高地上，地块之间有沟渠，就像图140所示的那样。图140的前景中有一个水库，水库岸边安装着一台四人脚踏灌溉泵，用来灌溉右侧附近的稻田。撒播小麦的狭长地块从水库向后延伸，一直延伸到点缀在田野中的农庄，左侧是靠近运河岸边的一座泵房。
When we went north to the Shantung province the Kiangsu and Chekiang farmers were engaged in another of their time saving practices, also involving a large amount of human labor. This was the planting of cotton in wheat fields before the wheat was quite ready to harvest. In the sections of these two provinces which we visited most of the wheat and barley were sowed broadcast on narrow raised lands, some five feet wide, with furrows between, after the manner seen in Fig. 140, showing a reservoir in the immediate foreground, on whose bank is installed one of the four-man foot-power irrigation pumps in use to flood the nursery rice bed close by on the right. The narrow lands of broadcasted wheat extend back from the reservoir toward the farmsteads which dot the landscape, and on the left stands one of the pump shelters near the canal bank.
图 141 一片四英尺高、八英寸的麦田，即将收获，田里还种植了棉花。
Fig. 141.—Field of wheat with grain four feet, eight inches high, nearing time of harvest, in which cotton is planted.
为了节省时间，或者延长接下来棉花的生长季，这种种子会在小麦收获前十到十五天撒播在地表的谷物中。为了覆盖种子，床间沟里的土壤被铲松至四五英寸深，并磨成细粉，然后用铲子均匀地撒在床上，让土壤在谷物中筛落，覆盖在种子。这样施用的松土起到了覆盖物的作用，可以保持毛细管水分，使土壤在小麦收割前保持足够的湿润，使种子能够发芽。下一幅图（图141）是一幅近距离的图画，我们的翻译站在另一片麦田里。4月22日，这片麦田里正在以上述方式播种棉花，然而，麦穗非常密集，齐肩高，无论是播种还是撒上足够的土壤覆盖都并非易事。
To save time, or lengthen the growing season of the cotton which was to follow, this seed was sown broadcast among the grain on the surface, some ten to fifteen days before the wheat would be harvested. To cover the seed the soil in the furrows between the beds had been spaded loose to a depth of four or five inches, finely pulverized, and then with a spade was evenly scattered over the bed, letting it sift down among the grain, covering the seed. This loose earth, so applied, acts as a mulch to conserve the capillary moisture, permitting the soil to become sufficiently damp to germinate the seed before the wheat is harvested. The next illustration, Fig. 141, is a closer view with our interpreter standing in another field of wheat in which cotton was being sowed April 22nd in the manner described, and yet the stand of grain was very close and shoulder high, making it not an easy task either to sow the seed or to scatter sufficient soil to cover it.
图 142. 与图 141 相同的田地景观，谷物已被收割、移走，播种的棉花也已长出。
Fig. 142.—View of same field as Fig. 141, after the grain had been cut, removed and the cotton sowed in it was up.
我们从山东回来时，这块地已经收割完毕，每英亩产量为95.6蒲式耳小麦和3.5吨稻草。根据地主的陈述，从面积为4050平方英尺的地里收获了400斤小麦和500斤稻草。图142的照片拍摄于5月29日上午，照片中显示的是同样的情况。小麦收割完毕，棉花长出后，幼苗从短茬中微微露出。这些苗床之前已经用液体肥料处理过。稍后，这些植株会被锄掉，并间苗至每平方英尺面积约一株植株。两次拍摄之间间隔了37天，这种种植方法无疑为棉花的产量增加了30天，如果先收割谷物，再进行田间作业，棉花的产量将会增加。可以观察到，棉花的生长情况如下：小麦不用犁地，但土层深厚，自然开阔，播种时已在麦粒上覆了一层近两英寸的松土。此外，间苗时，还会用两齿或四齿锄头深翻地面。
When we had returned from Shantung this piece of grain had been harvested, giving a yield of 95.6 bushels of wheat and 3.5 tons of straw per acre, computed from the statement of the owner that 400 catty of grain and 500 catty of straw had been taken from the beds measuring 4050 square feet. On the morning of May 29th the photograph for Fig. 142 was taken, showing the same area after the wheat had been harvested and the cotton was up, the young plants showing slightly through the short stubble. These beds had already been once treated with liquid fertilizer. A little later the plants would be hoed and thinned to a stand of about one plant per each square foot of surface. There were thirty-seven days between the taking of the two photographs, and certainly thirty days had been added to the cotton crop by this method of planting, over what would have been available if the grain had been first harvested and the field fitted before planting. It will be observed that the cotton follows the wheat without plowing, but the soil was deep, naturally open, and a layer of nearly two inches of loose earth had been placed over the seed at the time of planting. Besides, the ground would be deeply worked with the two or four tined hoe, at the time of thinning.
图 143——多种作物，包括小麦、温莎豆和棉花。小麦即将收割，豆子长到三分之二，棉花刚刚栽种。上图为小麦行间景象，下图为已覆盖地面的豆子行间景象。
Fig. 143.—Multiple crops, wheat, Windsor beans and cotton. Wheat ready to harvest, beans two-thirds grown, cotton just planted. Upper view looking between wheat rows, lower, looking between bean rows now covering ground.
以上述方式在小麦中开始种植棉花，这只是一种普遍做法的一个特例。在这些国家，只要气候允许，种植多种作物都是常态。有时，同一块田地里会种植多达三种作物，它们种植的日期和成熟度各不相同。黄瓜和绿叶蔬菜的交错种植就是一个例子。几乎所有作物都种植在行间，这种普遍的做法很容易形成复种种植体系，从而最大限度地利用生长季节的每一分钟以及家人照料作物的时间。如图143所示，田地里，一茬冬小麦即将成熟，一茬温莎豆长出了约三分之二，而棉花刚刚播种完成，时间是4月22日。这块田地被犁成了大约5英尺宽的垄，垄之间有12英寸的沟。两排小麦宽八英寸，间距两英尺，占据了田垄的顶部，留下上图所示为16英寸宽的条带，(1)用于耕作，(2)用于施肥，(3)用于小麦收割前种植的棉花。沟渠两侧分别种植了一排温莎豆，如下图所示，遮住了沟渠。温莎豆在小麦收割后不久成熟，棉花尚未长大。在经过一段时间的耕作和施肥后，有时会收获晚秋作物，一年可以收获四茬。为了获得最大的土壤回报，需要对每种作物进行连续施肥，并保持充足的土壤水分。
Starting cotton in the wheat in the manner described is but a special case of a general practice widely in vogue. The growing of multiple crops is the rule throughout these countries wherever the climate permits. Sometimes as many as three crops occupy the same field in recurrent rows, but of different dates of planting and in different stages of maturity. Reference has been made to the overlapping and alternation of cucumbers with greens. The general practice of planting nearly all crops in rows lends itself readily to systems of multiple cropping, and these to the fullest possible utilization of every minute of the growing season and of the time of the family in caring for the crops. In the field, Fig. 143, a crop of winter wheat was nearing maturity, a crop of Windsor beans was about two-thirds grown, and cotton had just been planted, April 22nd. This field had been thrown into ridges some five feet wide with a twelve inch furrow between them. Two rows of wheat eight inches wide, planted two feet between centers occupied the crest of the ridge, leaving a strip sixteen inches wide, seen in the upper section, (1) for tillage, (2) then fertilization and (3) finally the row of cotton planted just before the wheat was harvested. Against the furrow on each side was a row of Windsor beans, seen in the lower view, hiding the furrow, which was matured some time after the wheat was harvested and before the cotton was very large. A late fall crop sometimes follows the Windsor beans after a period of tillage and fertilization, making four in one year. With such a succession fertilization for each crop, and an abundance of soil moisture are required to give the largest returns from the soil.
图 144、将一茬“三叶草”翻耕成绿肥，与大麦一起生长，然后种植棉花。
Fig. 144.—Turning under a crop of “Chinese clover” for green manure, grown with barley and to be followed by cotton.
图145——直隶的多种作物——小麦和高粱。小麦成熟后，接着种植大豆。堆肥土用来种植大豆。
Fig. 145.—Multiple crops in Chihli—wheat and sorghum, the wheat ripe, to be followed by soy beans. Piles of compost earth for soy beans.
另一种方案是，冬小麦或大麦可以与绿叶作物（例如紫花苜蓿）并排种植，作为土壤肥料，就像图144中的情况一样。这些绿叶作物翻耕后，可以作为棉花的肥料，棉花成排种植在大麦的两侧。大麦收割后，大麦占用的土地会被翻耕并进一步施肥，当棉花接近成熟时，作物可以种植油菜，用来制作“腌白菜”以供冬季使用。
In another plan winter wheat or barley may grow side by side with a green crop, such as the ‘Chinese clover” (Medicago denticulata, Willd.) for soil fertilizer, as was the case in Fig. 144, to be turned under and fertilize for a crop of cotton planted in rows on either side of a crop of barley. After the barley had been harvested the ground it occupied would be tilled and further fertilized, and when the cotton was nearing maturity a crop of rape might be grown, from which “salted cabbage” would be prepared for winter use.
直隶北部，直至天津和北京，种植着多种作物，最常见的是小麦、玉米、黍米、粟米和大豆。这些地方土壤不太肥沃，年降雨量只有大约25英寸，雨季始于六月末或七月初。图145显示的是6月14日的一片田地。两行小麦和两行黍米交替种植，行距约为28英寸。小麦已经可以收割了，但由于生长在轻质沙壤土上，且当时正值干旱季节，小麦的麦秆异常短小。而那年1月1日之后的降雨量仅为5厘米多一点。
Multiple crops are grown as far north in Chihli as Tientsin and Peking, these being oftenest wheat, maize, large and small millet and soy beans, and this, too, where the soil is less fertile and where the annual rainfall is only about twenty-five inches, the rainy season beginning in late June or early July, and Fig. 145 shows one of these fields as it appeared June 14th, where two rows of wheat and two of large millet were planted in alternating pairs, the rows being about twenty-eight inches apart. The wheat was ready to harvest but the straw was unusually short because growing on a light sandy loam in a season of exceptional drought, but little more than two inches of rain having fallen after January 1st of that year.
图 146、中国直隶一家人正在从麦捆上切下麦根，准备用来制作堆肥。
Fig. 146.—Family engaged in cutting, from bundles of wheat, the roots to be used in making compost, Chihli, China.
在田垄之间看到的一堆堆干土粉，是用来在小麦被拔掉后，就会被捆成捆，运回村里，然后把根切掉，用来制作堆肥，如图146所示。图中显示的是一家人正在用一把固定在一端的长直刀片，用杠杆向下推压小麦捆，把小麦根切掉。如果不用作燃料，这些根就会被转移到堆肥坑里，堆肥坑位于如图147所示的封闭空间内，墙壁是用土砖砌成的。在这里，它们会和其他废弃的垫料、粪肥或灰烬一起，在水下腐烂，直到纤维被破坏，这样就可以与土壤混合，施用于田地。这种肥沃的土壤富含可溶性植物养分，并且不会干扰土壤水分的毛细管运动。这项工作在田地外进行，在那里，变化可以不受阻碍地进行，也不会干扰地上作物的生长。
The piles of pulverized dry-earth compost seen between the rows had been brought for use on the ground occupied by the wheat when that was removed. The wheat would be pulled, tied in bundles, taken to the village and the roots cut off, for making compost, as in Fig. 146, which shows the family engaged in cutting the roots from the small bundles of wheat, using a long straight knife blade, fixed at one end, and thrust downward upon the bundle with lever pressure. These roots, if not used as fuel, would be transferred to the compost pit in the enclosure seen in Fig. 147, whose walls were built of earth brick. Here, with any other waste litter, manure or ashes, they would be permitted to decay under water until the fiber had been destroyed, thus permitting it to be incorporated with soil and applied to the fields, rich in soluble plant food and in a condition which would not interfere with the capillary movement of soil moisture, the work going on outside the field where the changes could occur unimpeded and without interfering with the growth of crops on the ground.
图 147——堆肥棚和猪圈，一端堆放着一堆麦根，用于制作堆肥，中国直隶。
Fig. 147.—Compost shelter and pig pen, with pile of wheat roots stacked at one end, for use in making compost, Chihli, China.
在这种中耕复种相结合的制度下，东方农民充分利用了作物轮作或连作可能带来的一切好处，无论是物理的、植物化学的还是生物的。如果植物通过其根系在土壤中的紧密联系而互相帮助，正如一些人所认为的那样，这种不同物种紧密并列生长似乎提供了机会，但已经指出的其他优势是如此明显和重要，以至于它们无疑导致了在紧密的轮作行中种植不同作物的做法。
In this system of combined intertillage and multiple cropping the oriental farmer thus takes advantage of whatever good may result from rotation or succession of crops, whether these be physical, vito-chemical or biological. If plants are mutually helpful through close association of their root systems in the soil, as some believe may be the case, this growing of different species in close juxtaposition would seem to provide the opportunity, but the other advantages which have been pointed out are so evident and so important that they, rather than this, have doubtless led to the practice of growing different crops in close recurrent rows.
XII.
RICE CULTURE IN THE ORIENT.
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中国、朝鲜和日本人民的基本粮食作物是稻米。截至1906年的五年间，日本的人均稻米消费量和年均稻米消费量为302磅。1906年，日本175,428平方英里的土地中，有12,856平方英里用于种植稻米。12,534平方英里的土地上，水稻的平均产量超过每英亩33蒲式耳；321平方英里的旱地稻米平均产量为每英亩18蒲式耳。在北海道，远至伊利诺伊州北部，日本从53,000英亩的土地上收获了1,780,000蒲式耳的水稻。
The basal food crop of the people of China, Korea and Japan is rice, and the mean consumption in Japan, for the five years ending 1906, per capita and per annum, was 302 pounds. Of Japan’s 175,428 square miles she devoted, in 1906, 12,856 to the rice crop. Her average yield of water rice on 12,534 square miles exceeded 33 bushels per acre, and the dry land rice averaged 18 bushels per acre on 321 square miles. In the Hokkaido, as far north as northern Illinois, Japan harvested 1,780,000 bushels of water rice from 53,000 acres.
在中国四川省，总领事何西估计平原水稻每英亩产量为44蒲式耳，旱地水稻每英亩产量为22蒲式耳。中国提供的数据显示，水稻平均每英亩产量为42蒲式耳，小麦平均每英亩产量为25蒲式耳，而日本的正常产量约为17蒲式耳。
In Szechwan province, China, Consul-General Hosie places the yield of water rice on the plains land at 44 bushels per acre, and that of the dry land rice at 22 bushels. Data given us in China show an average yield of 42 bushels of water rice per acre, while the average yield of wheat was 25 bushels per acre, the normal yield in Japan being about 17 bushels.
如果中国本土和韩国的人均大米消费量与日本相等，则这三个国家的年消费量（以每人每年 300 磅为整数）将是：
If the rice eaten per capita in China proper and Korea is equal to that in Japan the annual consumption for the three nations, using the round number 300 pounds per capita per annum, would be:
如果韩国和中国本土的水稻和旱稻的比例与日本相同，并且这些国家每英亩稻米的平均产量为水稻四十蒲式耳，旱地稻米二十蒲式耳，要达到这一产量所需的种植面积为：
If the ratio of irrigated to dry land rice in Korea and China proper is the same as that in Japan, and if the mean yield of rice per acre in these countries were forty bushels for the water rice and twenty bushels for the dry land rice, the acreage required to give this production would be:
我们沿着朝鲜安东、首尔和扶山之间四百英里铁路线进行的观察表明，这个国家的水稻种植面积一定比计算结果要多而不是要少，而第 97 至 102 页所示的中国渠化土地面积（平方英里）表明，她的水稻种植面积与估计结果相当。
Our observations along the four hundred miles of railway in Korea between Antung, Seoul and Fusan, suggest that the land under rice in this country must be more rather than less than that computed, and the square miles of canalized land in China, as indicated on pages 97 to 102, would indicate an acreage of rice for her quite as large as estimated.
在日本的三个主要岛屿上，超过50%的耕地每年产一季水稻，占日本帝国全部土地面积的7.96%（不包括最北部的库页岛）。台湾和中国南部的大片地区每年产两季稻。按照计算中使用的大平均产量，中国本土的水稻种植面积估计占其总面积的5.93%，比1907年美国的小麦种植面积多7433平方英里。然而，我国的小麦产量只有1900万吨，而中国在几乎相同土地面积上产出的稻米产量肯定是这个数字的两倍甚至三倍；尽管每英亩产量如此之高，但同一土地上超过50%、可能高达75%的土地在同一年至少会收获一种其他作物，其中大部分可能是小麦或大麦，这两种作物主要都是人类的食物。
In the three main islands of Japan more than fifty per cent of the cultivated land produces a crop of water rice each year and 7.96 per cent of the entire land area of the Empire, omitting far-north Karafuto. In Formosa and in southern China large areas produce two crops each year. At the large mean yield used in the computation the estimated acreage of rice in China proper amounts to 5.93 per cent of her total area and this is 7433 square miles greater than the acreage of wheat in the United States in 1907. Our yield of wheat, however, was but 19,000,000 tons, while China’s output of rice was certainly double and probably three times this amount from nearly the same acreage of land; and notwithstanding this large production per acre, more than fifty per cent, possibly as high as seventy-five per cent, of the same land matures at least one other crop the same year, and much of this may be wheat or barley, both chiefly consumed as human food.
如果蒙古人种传播到北美而不是东亚，并在那里发展，或者发展得和东亚一样好，或许曾经有一条大运河，就像图148所示的那样，从格兰德河到俄亥俄河河口，从密西西比河到切萨皮克湾，构成一条两千多英里的内陆水道，服务于商业，截留并重新分配径流和因土壤侵蚀而流失的肥力，将它们分布到20万平方英里的完全被运河化的沿海平原上。这些平原如今许多地方都变成了贫瘠的土地，这是由一个自诩为文明的不可忍受的浪费造成的。谁能大胆地计算出，这种节约方式将使糖、棉花、大米、橙子、桃子以及卷心菜、西红柿和芹菜的产量增加多少吨？又有谁能计算出，这些增加的粮食将为多少百万人口提供衣食？我们或许可以禁止磷的出口，研磨石灰石，并将其用于农田，但这仅仅是在拖延未来。我们生产的越多，我们的人口越多，我们就越有可能面临死亡。实践使废物加速流入大海，无论金钱还是祈祷都无法将它们收回。
Had the Mongolian races spread to and developed in North America instead of, or as well as, in eastern Asia, there might have been a Grand Canal, something as suggested in Fig. 148, from the Rio Grande to the mouth of the Ohio river and from the Mississippi to Chesapeake Bay, constituting more than two thousand miles of inland water-way, serving commerce, holding up and redistributing both the run-off water and the wasting fertility of soil erosion, spreading them over 200,000 square miles of thoroughly canalized coastal plains, so many of which are now impoverished lands, made so by the intolerable waste of a vaunted civilization. And who shall venture to enumerate the increase in the tonnage of sugar, bales of cotton, sacks of rice, boxes of oranges, baskets of peaches, and in the trainloads of cabbage, tomatoes and celery such husbanding would make possible through all time; or number the increased millions these could feed and clothe? We may prohibit the exportation of our phosphorus, grind our limestone, and apply them to our fields, but this alone is only temporizing with the future. The more we produce, the more numerous our millions, the faster must present practices speed the waste to the sea, from whence neither money nor prayer can call them back.
图 148——一条与中国大运河相对应的运河。
Fig. 148.—A canal which would correspond with the Grand Canal of China.
如果美国要延续下去；如果我们要像蒙古民族那样，将我们的历史延续四五千年，如果这段历史能够在持续的和平中书写，免受饥荒和瘟疫的肆虐，那么这个国家就必须调整方向；它必须将自身实践与资源保护相结合，从而确保其持久发展。强化耕作方式，也会加剧表层土壤的消化、吸收和耗竭，而表层土壤正是生命的源泉。复种、更紧密的植株和更强的生长，都意味着每英亩土地需要更多的水分通过作物蒸腾，而这只有通过重新分配径流并在水资源丰富的湿润气候下采用灌溉方式才能实现。我们迟早必须制定一项国家政策，更加全面地保护我们的水资源，不仅将其用于发电和交通运输，更主要地将其用于通过补充灌溉来维持土壤肥力和提高作物产量。所有这些重大的国家利益都应得到综合、广泛的考量，并着眼于尽可能充分和最佳的协调。中国、韩国和日本很久以前就确定了永久性农业的基调，但现在时机已到，它们能够并且将会取得巨大进步。我们和其他国家应该借鉴他们的经验，采纳和改进他们实践中的有益之处，并推动世界范围内推广新的、改进的方法。
If the United States is to endure; if we shall project our history even through four or five thousand years as the Mongolian nations have done, and if that history shall be written in continuous peace, free from periods of wide spread famine or pestilence, this nation must orient itself; it must square its practices with a conservation of resources which can make endurance possible. Intensifying cultural methods but intensifies the digestion, assimilation and exhaustion of the surface soil, from which life springs, Multiple cropping, closer stands on the ground and stronger growth, all mean the transpiration of much more water per acre through the crops, and this can only be rendered possible through a redistribution of the run-off and the adoption of irrigation practices in humid climates where water exists in abundance. Sooner or later we must adopt a national policy which shall more completely conserve our water resources, utilizing them not only for power and transportation, but primarily for the maintenance of soil fertility and greater crop production through supplemental irrigation, and all these great national interests should be considered collectively, broadly, and with a view to the fullest and best possible coordination. China, Korea and Japan long ago struck the keynote of permanent agriculture but the time has now come when they can and will make great improvements, and it remains for us and other nations to profit by their experience, to adopt and adapt what is good in their practice and help in a world movement for the introduction of new and improved methods.
通过选择水稻作为主要作物，发展和维护灌溉排水联合系统（尽管夏季降雨量很大），采用多种作物种植制度，广泛而持久地使用豆科植物，轮作绿肥以保持土壤腐殖质并进行堆肥，以及几乎宗教般的忠诚地将各种形式的废物返还给田地以替代作物所带走的植物养分，这些国家已经展现出对基本原理的掌握，而这些原理和原理很可能会令西方国家停下来反思。
In selecting rice as their staple crop; in developing and maintaining their systems of combined irrigation and drainage, notwithstanding they have a large summer rainfall; in their systems of multiple cropping; in their extensive and persistent use of legumes; in their rotations for green manure to maintain the humus of their soils and for composting; and in the almost religious fidelity with which they have returned to their fields every form of waste which can replace plant food removed by the crops, these nations have demonstrated a grasp of essentials and of fundamental principles which may well cause western nations to pause and reflect.
图 149.日本最近移植的稻田。
Fig. 149.—Recently transplanted rice fields in Japan.
虽然这个国家现在不需要、也不可能采用他们辛苦的稻米种植方法，而且我们希望我们的后代永远不会被迫这样做，但为了了解其中涉及的原则，研究他们所采用的做法仍然是非常值得的。
While this country need not and could not now adopt their laborious methods of rice culture, and while, let us hope, those who come after us may never be compelled to do so, it is nevertheless quite worth while to study, for the sake of the principles involved, the practices they have been led to adopt.
图 150、中国长江平原的稻田在插秧前被洪水淹没。
Fig. 150.—Rice fields on the plains of the Yangtse kiang, China, being flooded preparatory to transplanting rice.
这些国家的稻米种植面积很大，但相对而言，旱地很少，大多数稻米生长的田地都被平整到水面，周围环绕着低矮狭窄的凸起边缘，如图149和图 150所示，那里有三个人正在用脚劳动水泵，在田地中灌溉，为插秧做准备。如果地势不平坦，坡度就会被分割成水平梯田，大小根据被开垦区域的陡峭程度而有所不同。我们看到的这些梯田通常不大于一间小房间的地板。罗斯教授告诉我，他在中国内陆地区走过的梯田也不大于一张餐桌，他还看到过一块梯田，上面种着稻谷，稻谷被边缘包围，盛着水，但大小仅比一张好的餐巾纸大不了多少。日本官方公布的稻田平均面积为1.14英亩，即31英尺乘40英尺。除北海道、台湾和库页岛外，日本53%的灌溉稻田的分配面积小于八分之一英亩，74%的其他耕地的面积小于四分之一英亩，而且每个耕地的面积都可以进一步细分。接下来的两幅插图，图。图151和152很好地展现了稻田的狭小规模以及为稳固水位而修建的梯田。图151中心附近的房屋是判断稻田大小和山谷坡度的一个很好的尺度。稻行之间的距离不到一英尺，因此，计算前景中的稻行可以作为另一种衡量标准。这幅版画显示了二十多块小田地，它们位于房屋前方，延伸到房屋的一半，而房屋距离相机不到五百英尺。
Great as is the acreage of land in rice in these countries, but little, relatively, is of the dry land type, and the fields upon which most of the rice grows have all been graded to a water level and surrounded by low, narrow raised rims, such as may be seen in Fig. 149 and in Fig. 150, where three men are at work on their foot-power pump, flooding fields preparatory to transplanting the rice. If the country was not level then the slopes have been graded into horizontal terraces varying in size according to the steepness of the areas in which they were cut. We saw these often no larger than the floor of a small room, and Professor Ross informed me that he walked past those in the interior of China no larger than a dining table and that he saw one bearing its crop of rice, surrounded by its rim and holding water, yet barely larger than a good napkin. The average area of the paddy field in Japan is officially reported at 1.14 se, or an area of but 31 by 40 feet. Excluding Hokkaido, Formosa and Karafuto, fifty-three per cent of the irrigated rice lands in Japan are in allotments smaller than one-eighth of an acre, and seventy-four per cent of other cultivated lands are held in areas less than one-fourth of an acre, and each of these may be further subdivided. The next two illustrations, Figs. 151 and 152, give a good idea both of the small size of the rice fields and of the terracing which has been done to secure the water level basins. The house standing near the center of Fig. 151 is a good scale for judging both the size of the paddies and the slope of the valley. The distance between the rows of rice is scarcely one foot, hence counting these in the foreground may serve as another measure. There are more than twenty little fields shown in this engraving in front of the house and reaching but half way to it, and the house was less than five hundred feet from the camera.
日本三个主要岛屿上，有超过一万一千平方英里的田地被这样平整，每块田地都设有围栏，并修建了供水和排水渠，所有水渠都经过精心维护，维护得非常好。这三个国家中较为平坦的地区也同样被填埋成水位洼地，但由于这些土地的规模通常较小，因此这些洼地的面积相对较少。除非需要修建堤坝，否则从运河和排水渠挖出的所有泥土都会被平整覆盖在田地上。因此，最初的建设劳动加上维护劳动，其总量远远超出了我们的理解范围，几乎所有劳动都是人力的成果。
There are more than eleven thousand square miles of fields thus graded in the three main islands of Japan, each provided with rims, with water supply and drainage channels, all carefully kept in the best of repair. The more level areas, too, in each of the three countries, have been similarly thrown into water level basins, comparatively few of which cover large areas, because nearly always the holdings are small. All of the earth excavated from the canals and drainage channels has been leveled over the fields unless needed for levees or dikes, so that the original labor of construction, added to that of maintenance, makes a total far beyond our comprehension and nearly all of it is the product of human effort.
图 151、日本的梯田山谷，小台地被洪水淹没，并移植了水稻。
Fig. 151.—Terraced valley with small terraces flooded and transplanted to rice, Japan.
将如此多的田地规划并塑造成这些平坦的盆地，为这三个国家带来了巨大的年度总资产，其中很大一部分尚未被西方国家利用。最大的收益来自于持续的高产，这得益于充足的水源，更多的植物养分可以被利用，从而提高平均产量。所使用的水源主要来自未开垦的丘陵和山地，携带着溶解物和悬浮物，每年为田地带来溶解的石灰岩和植物养分，而这些田地总体上已经非常几百年来，这种做法一直持续不断，最终导致土壤肥力下降。如果每年灌溉稻田的水量只有16英寸，且水质符合梅里尔所引用的北美河流平均成分，既不考虑悬浮物，也不考虑钾和磷的吸收量，那么每万平方英里的土地就会溶解在水中，其中含有约1400吨磷、23000吨钾、27000吨氮和48000吨硫。此外，还有约216000吨溶解有机物和更大重量的溶解石灰石被输送到田地，这对于中和土壤的酸性至关重要，总计达1221000吨；几个世纪以来，中国、韩国和日本一直保持着这样的节约，其用水量超过了五倍，甚至可能超过了九倍，也就是一万平方英里的土地。这样，九万平方英里土地上的磷在一千年内将聚集近一千三百万吨，这比维持这种做法的时间要短，而且比迄今为止在美国开采的所有磷矿石中所含的磷还要多，如果这些磷矿石的纯度为百分之七十五的话。
The laying out and shaping of so many fields into these level basins brings to the three nations an enormous aggregate annual asset, a large proportion of which western nations are not yet utilizing. The greatest gain comes from the unfailing higher yields made possible by providing an abundance of water through which more plant food can be utilized, thus providing higher average yields. The waters used, coming as they do largely from the uncultivated hills and mountain lands, carrying both dissolved and suspended matters, make positive annual additions of dissolved limestone and plant food elements to the fields which in the aggregate have been very large, through the persistent repetitions which have prevailed for centuries. If the yearly application of such water to the rice fields is but sixteen inches, and this has the average composition quoted by Merrill for rivers of North America, taking into account neither suspended matter nor the absorption of potassium and phosphorus by it, each ten thousand square miles would receive, dissolved in the water, substances containing some 1,400 tons of phosphorus; 23,000 tons of potassium; 27,000 tons of nitrogen; and 48,000 tons of sulphur. In addition, there are brought to the fields some 216,000 tons of dissolved organic matter and a still larger weight of dissolved limestone, so necessary in neutralizing the acidity of soils, amounting to 1,221,000 tons; and such savings have been maintained in China, Korea and Japan on more than five, and possibly more than nine, times the ten thousand square miles, through centuries. The phosphorus thus turned upon ninety thousand square miles would aggregate nearly thirteen million tons in a thousand years, which is less than the time the practice has been maintained, and is more phosphorus than would be carried in the entire rock phosphate thus far mined in the United States, were it all seventy-five per cent pure.
图 152. 俯瞰日本陡峭狭窄的山谷，看到被洪水淹没并移植的小稻田。
Fig. 152.—Looking down a steep, narrow Japanese valley at small, flooded and transplanted rice paddies.
在我们墨西哥湾和大西洋沿岸平原开凿五万平方英里的运河，并将淤泥、有机物和水一起用于农田，将意味着将大量目前流失到海洋中的植物养分转化为资源，从而大幅提高农作物产量。除了系统地利用那些易受洪水泛滥影响或地势低洼、排水不畅的三角洲土地之外，应该（而且似乎也必须）开辟一条道路，将大量来自本河和其他河流的肥沃淤泥和有机物输送到佛罗里达的沙质平原以及佛罗里达与密西西比河之间的沙质土地。
The canalization of fifty thousand square miles of our Gulf and Atlantic coastal plain, and the utilization on the fields of the silts and organic matter, together with the water, would mean turning to account a vast tonnage of plant food which is now wasting into the sea, and a correspondingly great increase of crop yield. There ought, and it would seem there must some time be provided a way for sending to the sandy plains of Florida, and to the sandy lands between there and the Mississippi, large volumes of the rich silt and organic matter from this and other rivers, aside from that which should be applied systematically to building above flood plain the lands of the delta which are subject to overflow or are too low to permit adequate drainage.
有些人可能认为，在田间施用如此大量的水，尤其是在降雨量大的国家，必然会因淋溶和地表排水而导致植物养分大量流失。但这三个国家卓越的实践经验表明，情况并非如此。至关重要的是，我们的人民应该理解并领会他们在水稻灌溉领域几乎一致采用的实践原则。首先，他们的稻田采用地下排水，因此大部分水要么通过地表蒸发从作物体内流出土壤，要么渗入底土层进入浅层排水沟。当水直接从一个稻田流向另一个稻田时，通常是在施肥一段时间后，当土壤和作物都有足够的时间吸收或固定可溶性养分物质时。此外，直到施肥后，水才会被浇灌到田间。现在是移植水稻的时候了，此时水稻已经具有强大的根系，能够立即吸收在根部周围发育或向下输送的任何可溶性植物养分。
It may appear to some that the application of such large volumes of water to fields, especially in countries of heavy rainfall, must result in great loss of plant food through leaching and surface drainage. But under the remarkable practices of these three nations this is certainly not the case and it is highly important that our people should understand and appreciate the principles which underlie the practices they have almost uniformly adopted on the areas devoted to rice irrigation. In the first place, their paddy fields are under-drained so that most of the water either leaves the soil through the crop, by surface evaporation, or it percolates through the subsoil into shallow drains. When water is passed directly from one rice paddy to another it is usually permitted some time after fertilization, when both soil and crop have had time to appropriate or fix the soluble plant food substances. Besides this, water is not turned upon the fields until the time for transplanting the rice, when the plants are already provided with a strong root system and are capable of at once appropriating any soluble plant food which may develop about their roots or be carried downward over them.
图 153——日本，茄子生长在稻田中间，土壤持续饱和，水停留在距离地表 14 英寸以内的排水沟中。
Fig. 153.—Egg plants growing in the midst of rice fields with soil continually saturated and water standing in surface drain within 14 inches of the surface, Japan.
虽然排水沟是地面排水，深度只有18英寸到3英尺，但它们数量足够多，而且距离足够近，因此，尽管土壤几乎一直被水填满，新鲜的、充满氧气的水仍然能够稳定地渗入土壤，携带充足的氧气满足根系的需要。因此，西瓜、茄子、甜瓜和芋头就像图中所示，在灌溉稻田的小块水田中轮作种植。在图153中，每行茄子之间都隔着一条狭窄的浅沟，这条沟与一个排水沟相连，沟里的水离地表不到14英寸。图154中的西瓜也是如此，藤蔓生长在一层厚厚的稻草覆盖物使作物与湿润的土壤隔绝，通过减少蒸发来保持水分，并通过夏季雨水的腐烂和淋溶，为作物提供肥料。图155所示为一条小路，这条小路将西瓜和芋头种植区之间的两条主沟渠分隔开来，将几条沟渠中的排水引到主沟渠中。虽然土壤看起来很湿润，但作物却生长旺盛，健康生长，似乎丝毫没有受到排水不足的影响。
Although the drains are of the surface type and but eighteen inches to three feet in depth, they are sufficiently numerous and close so that, although the soil is continuously nearly filled with water, there is a steady percolation of the fresh, fully aerated water carrying an abundance of oxygen into the soil to meet the needs of the roots, so that watermelons, egg plants, musk melons and taro are grown in the rotations on the small paddies among the irrigated rice after the manner seen in the illustrations. In Fig. 153 each double row of egg plants is separated from the next by a narrow shallow trench which connects with a head drain and in which water was standing within fourteen inches of the surface. The same was true in the case of the watermelons seen in Fig. 154, where the vines are growing on a thick layer of straw mulch which holds them from the moist soil and acts to conserve water by diminishing evaporation and, through decay from the summer rains and leaching, serves as fertilizer for the crop. In Fig. 155 the view is along a pathway separating two head ditches between areas in watermelons and taro, carrying the drainage waters from the several furrows into the main ditches. Although the soil appeared wet the plants were vigorous and healthy, seeming in no way to suffer from insufficient drainage.
图 154 西瓜，地面覆盖着厚厚的稻草，生长在与图 153 类似的低矮床上。
Fig. 154.—Watermelons, with the ground heavily mulched with straw, growing on low beds under conditions similar to those of Fig. 153.
图 155——日本，沿着两条水沟之间的小路望去，水沟将西瓜田和芋头田隔开。
Fig. 155.—Looking along a path between two head ditches separating patches of watermelons and taro, Japan.
因此，这些人不仅重视灌溉和排水问题，也关注植物养分可能造成的损失，并寻找补充养分的方法。并非只有水稻种植区才采取耕作方法来保存可溶性养分，减少其在田间的流失。在不进行水淹的地方，小块田地和地床通常建得比较平坦，周围环绕着低矮的凸起边缘，这些边缘会形成水洼。不仅允许在需要时将全部雨水保留在田地上，而且可以将雨水完全分散到田地上，从而使整个土壤均匀地充满水分，防止雨水从田地的一部分冲刷到另一部分。图133和138显示了此类设施。
These people have, therefore, given effective attention to the matter of drainage as well as irrigation and are looking after possible losses of plant food, as well as ways of supplying it. It is not alone where rice is grown that cultural methods are made to conserve soluble plant food and to reduce its loss from the field, for very often, where flooding is not practiced, small fields and beds, made quite level, are surrounded by low raised borders which permit not only the whole of any rain to be retained upon the field when so desired, but it is completely distributed over it, thus causing the whole soil to be uniformly charged with moisture and preventing washing from one portion of the field to another. Such provisions are shown in Figs. 133 and 138.
中国、朝鲜和日本的灌溉水稻种植面积非常广阔，几乎每棵稻苗都会被移植；他们追求最大最好的收成，而不是像我们一样追求最少的劳作和麻烦，这决定了他们种植水稻的方法和做法。我们第一次看到水稻苗床的安装是在广州，后来又在浙江嘉兴附近的吴太太家的农场上看到了。吴太太的家宅如图15—6所示。太平天国运动席卷了两个省，造成了两千万人的伤亡。吴太太和丈夫从宁波来到浙江，定居在当时空置的一小块土地上。随着他们的事业发展，他们不断购置土地，不断扩大土地，最终拥有大约25英亩的土地，大约是中国普通富裕家庭土地面积的10倍。吴太太的寡妇管理着自己的家宅，她的一个儿子虽然已经结婚，但仍在上学，儿媳与婆婆住在一起，帮忙做家务。夏天，她雇了七名工人来帮她田，还养了四头牛，用来犁地和抽水灌溉。这些人的工资按墨西哥标准计算，为夏季五个月，每月24美元，另加每日四餐。因此，这七个人每月的现金支出为14.45美元（以我们的货币计算）。十年前，这类劳动的年薪为30美元，而我们访问时为50美元，相当于我们货币的12.90美元和21.50美元。
Extensive as is the acreage of irrigated rice in China, Korea and Japan, nearly every spear is transplanted; the largest and best crop possible, rather than the least labor and trouble, as is so often the case with us, determining their methods and practices. We first saw the fitting of the rice nursery beds at Canton and again near Kashing in Chekiang province on the farm of Mrs. Wu, whose homestead is seen in Fig. 156. She had come with her husband from Ningpo after the ravages of the Taiping rebellion had swept from two provinces alone twenty millions of people and settled on a small area of then vacated land. As they prospered they added to their holding by purchase until about twenty-five acres were acquired, an area about ten times that possessed by the usual prosperous family in China, The widow was managing her place, one of her sons, although married, being still in school, the daughter-in-law living with her mother-in-law and helping in the home. Her field help during the summer consisted of seven laborers and she kept four cows for the plowing and pumping of water for irrigation. The wages of the men were at the rate of $24, Mexican, for five summer months, together with their meals which were four each day. The cash outlay for the seven men was thus $14.45 of our currency per month. Ten years before, such labor had been $30 per year, as compared with $50 at the time of our visit, or $12.90 and $21.50 of our currency, respectively.
图 156. 中国嘉兴吴女士的住宅大院和农场建筑。
Fig. 156.—Residence compound and farm buildings of Mrs. Wu, Kashing, China.
她通常每刈稻产量为两担，即每英亩二十六又三分之二蒲式耳。她在同一季从部分土地上收获了一茬产量相当于这一产量一半或其他产量的小麦，一次施肥就能收获两茬。她说，她每年购买肥料的花费通常约为60美元，相当于现在的25.80美元。吴太太的宅邸（图156）由一个四合院组成，院子呈大四合院状，南面被一道八英尺高的坚固围墙围起来。房屋是土砖结构，屋顶铺着稻草。
Her usual yields of rice were two piculs per mow, or twenty-six and two-thirds bushels per acre, and a wheat crop yielding half this amount, or some other, was taken from part of the land the same season, one fertilization answering for the two crops. She stated that her annual expense for fertilizers purchased was usually about $60, or $25.80 of our currency. The homestead of Mrs. Wu, Fig. 156, consists of a compound in the form of a large quadrangle surrounding a court closed on the south by a solid wall eight feet high. The structure is of earth brick with the roof thatched with rice straw.
图 157——吴女士农场的抽水站，显示泵房，两个与泵相连的动力轮，位于从运河引出的水渠的末端。
Fig. 157.—Pumping station on the farm of Mrs. Wu, showing pump shelter, two power wheels connected with pumps, set at the end of a water channel leading from a canal.
我们第一次来这里是在4月19日。稻田已经播种了四天，播种速度每英亩二十蒲式耳。土壤经过精心整治，施肥充足，最后一步是撒上未完全燃烧的植物灰烬，导致表面呈黑色。种子直接撒在地表，几乎完全覆盖了地表。种子用一个宽底平底的篮子轻轻地打入灰烬中。每天傍晚，如果夜晚可能凉爽，就会往地表浇水，第二天如果天气温暖晴朗，再将水抽走，这样黑色的地表就能吸收热量，并将新鲜空气吸入土壤。
Our first visit here was April 19th. The nursery rice beds had been planted four days, sowing seed at the rate of twenty bushels per acre. The soil had been very carefully prepared and highly fertilized, the last treatment being a dressing of plant ashes so incompletely burned as to leave the surface coal black. The seed, scattered directly upon the surface, almost completely covered it and had been gently beaten barely into the dressing of ashes, using a wide, flat-bottom basket for the purpose. Each evening, if the night was likely to be cool, water was pumped over the bed, to be withdrawn the next day, if warm and sunny, permitting the warmth to be absorbed by the black surface, and a fresh supply of air to be drawn into the soil.
图 158.—用于驱动灌溉泵的动力轮（图 157 中所示的两个动力轮之一）的近视图。
Fig. 158.—Close view of power wheel with cow attached, used in driving the irrigation pump, one of the two seen in Fig. 157.
大约一个月后的5月14日，记者第二次来到这个农场。如图159所示，农场里有一处水稻苗床。苗高约20厘米，已经到了可以移栽的阶段。苗床后面的田地已经被部分淹没并翻耕过，田里种上了“三叶草”，发酵后变成了绿肥，为水稻移栽做准备。在苗床的另一边，也就是农场主的前面（如图156所示），田埂之间的沟渠正在被水淹没。这些沟埂是上一季水稻收割后形成的，用来种植三叶草的绿肥就生长在沟埂上。在两排苗床的一端（如图159所示），有一个抽水站（如图157所示），它位于茅草棚下，两个水泵安装在从水渠引来的一条水渠的末端。图 158复制了其中一个木制泵动力装置，上面连接着一头蒙着眼睛的牛，在牛的头部正前方可以看到一个长柄勺，上面提到过这个勺子，用来收集排泄物。
Nearly a month later, May 14th, a second visit was made to this farm and one of the nursery beds of rice, as it then appeared, is seen in Fig. 159, the plants being about eight inches high and nearing the stage for transplanting. The field beyond the bed had already been partly flooded and plowed, turning under “Chinese clover” to ferment as green manure, preparatory for the rice transplanting. On the opposite side of the bed and in front of the residence, Fig. 156, flooding was in progress in the furrows between the ridges formed after the previous crop of rice was harvested and upon which the crop of clover for green manure was grown. Immediately at one end of the two series of nursery beds, one of which is seen in Fig. 159, was the pumping plant seen in Fig. 157, under a thatched shelter, with its two pumps installed at the end of a water channel leading from the canal. One of these wooden pump powers, with the blind-folded cow attached, is reproduced in Fig. 158 and just beyond the animal’s head may be seen the long handle dipper to which reference has been made, used for collecting excreta.
图 159——种植 29 天的水稻苗床，显示灌溉沟渠；田地被淹没，部分已耕种，水稻几乎可以移栽了。
Fig. 159.—Nursery bed of rice 29 days planted, showing irrigation furrows; field beyond flooded, partly plowed, and the rice nearly ready for transplanting.
图 160——中国浙江省，适合种植水稻的耕地，以及用于种植水稻的平整、粉碎耙。
Fig. 160.—Plowed field nearly fitted for rice, and the smoothing, pulverizing harrow used for the purpose, Chekiang province, China.
通过在苗床中种植，可以节省一个多月的时间用于冬季作物和早春作物的成熟和收获，或用于稻田的整地。大部分土地的灌溉期也缩短了相应的时间，既省水又省时。在小面积的苗床中施肥和准备种植更经济、更容易，同时还能获得比田间播种更茁壮、更均匀的植株。除草和照料植物的劳动也减少了。苗圃的面积远小于田间所需的面积。由于绿肥尚未生长，如果直接翻耕，需要时间进行堆肥或腐烂，因此在稻田早期就将苗床铺满整个稻田几乎是不可能的。苗圃中的稻株生长到一定阶段后，会成为强壮的吸食者，当它们被移植到田间新近耕作、施肥的清洁土壤中时，它们便可以在这些最有利的条件下进行旺盛的吸食。这样既节省了时间，又增加了植株的生长强度，而这些人采用的似乎是在小规模、人口密集的条件下可能的最佳做法。
More than a month is saved for maturing and harvesting winter and early spring crops, or in fitting the fields for rice, by this planting in nursery beds. The irrigation period for most of the land is cut short a like amount, saving in both water and time. It is cheaper and easier to highly fertilize and prepare a small area for the nursery, while at the same time much stronger and more uniform plants are secured than would be possible by sowing in the field. The labor of weeding and caring for the plants in the nursery is far less than would be required in the field. It would be practically impossible to fit the entire rice areas as early in the season as the nursery beds are fitted, for the green manure is not yet grown and time is required for composting or for decaying, if plowed under directly. The rice plants in the nursery are carried to a stage when they are strong feeders and when set into the newly prepared, fertilized, clean soil of the field they are ready to feed strongly under these most favorable conditions. Both time and strength of plant are thus gained and these people are following what would appear to be the best possible practices under their condition of small holdings and dense population.
图 161——用于在移栽前调整水稻田的旋转木耙的形状。
Fig. 161.—Form of revolving wooden harrow for fitting flooded rice fields preparatory to transplanting.
我们拥有广阔的土地、机械和有限的人力，他们的系统在我们看来是粗糙和不可能的，但是，如果我们把我们的土地缩小到他们的规模，同样的，我们的机械，甚至我们的犁，就会变得更加不可能，因此，人们越是研究这些人所处的环境（迄今为止这是不可避免的），他们的数量，他们已经做了什么和正在做什么，他们在何种困难下取得了成功，就越难看出哪种做法可能是更好的。
With our broad fields, our machinery and few people, their system appears to us crude and impossible, but cut our holdings to the size of theirs and the same stroke makes our machinery, even our plows, still more impossible, and so the more one studies the environment of these people, thus far unavoidable, their numbers, what they have done and are doing, against what odds they have succeeded, the more difficult it becomes to see what course might have been better.
插秧前的一个月里，人们忙得不可开交——制作堆肥；收割小麦、油菜和豆类作物；将堆肥施入田地，并进行灌溉和翻耕。图160中，其中一块田地已被犁平，几乎可以种植作物了。翻好的土壤被彻底碾碎、平整，并在较大的田地里用各种耙子将其揉成砂浆状，如图160和161所示。这种彻底的土壤翻耕可以使植物快速扎根，并为根系的快速生长提供条件。
How full with work is the month which precedes the transplanting of rice has been pointed out,—the making of the compost fertilizer; harvesting the wheat, rape and beans; distributing the compost over the fields, and their flooding and plowing. In Fig. 160 one of these fields is seen plowed, smoothed and nearly ready for the plants. The turned soil had been thoroughly pulverized, leveled and worked to the consistency of mortar, on the larger fields with one or another sort of harrow, as seen in Figs. 160 and 161. This thorough puddling of the soil permits the plants to be quickly set and provides conditions which ensure immediate perfect contact for the roots.
图 162 一群中国妇女在苗床上拔稻，将稻子捆成捆，准备移栽。
Fig. 162.—Group of Chinese women pulling rice in a nursery bed, tying the plants in bundles preparatory to transplanting.
当田地准备好时，妇女们就带着低矮的四脚竹凳来到苗圃，拔出水稻植株，仔细冲洗掉根部的泥土，然后将它们捆成便于移栽的大小的捆，然后分发到田里。
When the fields are ready women repair to the nurseries with their low four-legged bamboo stools, to pull the rice plants, carefully rinsing the soil from the roots, and then tie them into bundles of a size easily handled in transplanting, which are then distributed in the fields.
图 163——中国的水稻移栽。从同一地点每隔 15 分钟拍摄的四张照片，展示了 45 分钟内的移栽进度。
Fig. 163.—Transplanting rice in China. Four views taken from the same point at intervals of fifteen minutes, showing the progress made during forty-five minutes.
插秧工作可以由几组家庭轮流进行，其中相当一部分家庭按照图163所示的方式一起工作，这种方式是根据每隔十五分钟从同一地点拍摄的四张照片制作的。稻田里拉着长长的稻绳，稻绳间隔六英尺，七个人每人插着六行稻子，每行间隔一英尺，每行插上六到八株稻子，每行稻子之间的距离为八九英寸。稻子捆在一只手上，另一只手灵巧地用手指抓住稻子的根部，挑出所需的数量，然后轻轻一插，稻子就插到了行里。稻根周围没有压实泥土，每插上一株稻子都用一个动作，动作迅速地一个接一个，完成了一排由六株稻子组成的横向插秧行。稻子捆好后，他们又在田里往回走，完成了一整块田，把没用过的稻子插进了还没插好的田里。然后，他们重新插上稻绳，继续插到另一块田里。我们被告知，在这种情况下，一个男人通常每天的移栽工作量是两刈，也就是三分之一英亩。这样一来，这七个男人每天可以移栽两又三分之一英亩的土地。如果雇佣帮工，按照吴太太的工资计算，每英亩的现金支出将接近21美分。这比我们用最好的机器种植卷心菜和烟草要便宜得多。如图164和165所示，在日本，参与移栽工作的妇女比中国妇女更多。
The work of transplanting may be done by groups of families changing work, a considerable number of them laboring together after the manner seen in Fig. 163, made from four snap shots taken from the same point at intervals of fifteen minutes. Long cords were stretched in the rice field six feet apart and each of the seven men was setting six rows of rice one foot apart, six to eight plants in a hill, and the hills eight or nine inches apart in the row. The bundle was held in one hand and deftly, with the other, the desired number of plants were selected with the fingers at the roots, separated from the rest and, with a single thrust, set in place in the row. There was no packing of earth about the roots, each hill being set with a single motion, which followed one another in quick succession, completing one cross row of six hills after another. The men move backward across the field, completing one entire section, tossing the unused plants into the unset field. Then reset the lines to cover another section. We were told that the usual day’s work of transplanting, for a man under these conditions, after the field, is fitted and the plants are brought to him, is two mow or one-third of an acre. The seven men in this group would thus set two and a third acres per day and, at the wage Mrs. Wu was paying, the cash outlay, if the help was hired, would be nearly 21 cents per acre. This is more cheaply than we are able to set cabbage and tobacco plants with our best machine methods. In Japan, as seen in Figs. 164 and 165, the women participate in the work of setting the plants more than in China.
水稻移栽后，与小麦作物不同，它的照料并不会停止。它必须锄地、施肥和浇水。为了方便浇水，所有田地都已平整，并修建了水渠、沟渠和排水沟。为了方便施肥和锄地，稻田被设置成行状，并成排成丘陵。
After the rice has been transplanted its care, unlike that of our wheat crop, does not cease. It must be hoed, fertilized and watered. To facilitate the watering all fields have been leveled, canals, ditches and drains provided, and to aid in fertilizing and hoeing, the setting has been in rows and in hills in the row.
正如我们在日本看到的那样，插秧后稻田的第一次耕作是用四齿锄头在山丘之间翻土，显然是为了松土土壤和通气，而不是除草。处理完田地后，如图166所示，工人用双手抚平翻动过的土壤，小心地拔除每一根杂草，把它们埋在泥土里，并在翻动过程中把每一座稻丘扶直。有时，工人的手指上还会装有竹爪，以便于除草。最近，日本开始使用旋转式手动耕耘机，图14中可以看到两个工人正在使用这些机器。这种耕耘机的齿安装在轴上，当耕耘机沿着田垄推动时，齿也会随之旋转。
The first working of the rice fields after the transplanting, as we saw it in Japan, consisted in spading between the hills with a four-tined hoe, apparently more for loosening the soil and aeration than for killing weeds. After this treatment the field was gone over again in the manner seen in Fig. 166, where the man is using his bare hands to smooth and level the stirred soil, taking care to eradicate every weed, burying them beneath the mud, and to straighten each hill of rice as it is passed. Sometimes the fingers are armed with bamboo claws to facilitate the weeding. Machinery in the form of revolving hand cultivators is recently coming into use in Japan, and two men using these are seen in Fig. 14. In these cultivators the teeth are mounted on an axle so as to revolve as the cultivator is pushed along the row.
图 164、日本福冈实验站，一群身着雨衣的妇女正在插秧。
Fig. 164.—A group of Japanese women transplanting rice, in rainy weather costume, at Fukuoka Experiment Station, Japan.
这三个国家都非常重视水稻的施肥，而施肥的主要目的就是保持土壤中有机质的含量。图99和图100中提到的粉红三叶草，在秋季水稻收割后广泛播种，盛开后可以割下来做堆肥，或者在耕田时直接翻耕。每英亩可以产出18到20吨粉红三叶草，在日本，每英亩通常施肥约3英亩，残茬和根茎用于生产粉红三叶草，这样每英亩可以产出6到7吨绿肥，其中至少含有37磅钾、5磅磷和58磅氮。
Fertilization for the rice crop receives the greatest attention everywhere by these three nations and in no direction more than in maintaining the store of organic matter in the soil. The pink clover, to which reference has been made, Figs. 99 and 100, is extensively sowed after a crop of rice is harvested in the fall and comes into full bloom, ready to cut for compost or to turn under directly when the rice fields are plowed. Eighteen to twenty tons of this green clover are produced per acre, and in Japan this is usually applied to about three acres, the stubble and roots serving for the field producing the clover, thus giving a dressing of six to seven tons of green manure per acre, carrying not less than 37 pounds of potassium; 5 pounds of phosphorus, and 58 pounds of nitrogen.
图 165. 日本年轻女子戴着宽边遮阳帽插秧。
Fig. 165.—Japanese young women transplanting rice, under broad sunshade hats.
如果家庭人口多、土地面积小，没有足够的空间种植绿肥，人们就会在山上、杂草丛生的丘陵地带收集绿肥，或者在运河里收割。五月底，我们从苏州乘船西行，看到许多船只载着成吨的绿色长带状绿草，这些绿草都是从运河底部割下来的。为了收割这些绿草，人们在运河的水中用一把新月形的小刀，像锚一样固定在一个16英尺长的竹柄末端，水深及腋下。刀沿着运河底部向前推，然后向后拉，把绿草割下来，然后浮到水面，再把割下来的绿草收集到船上。或者，也可以在坟地、山地或丘陵地带收割绿肥，如图115所示。
Where the families are large and the holdings small, so they cannot spare room to grow the green manure crop, it is gathered on the mountain, weed and hill lands, or it may be cut in the canals. On our boat trip west from Soochow the last of May, many boats were passed carrying tons of the long green ribbon-like grass, cut and gathered from the bottom of the canal. To cut this grass men were working to their armpits in the water of the canal, using a crescent-shaped knife mounted like an anchor from the end of a 16-foot bamboo handle. This was shoved forward along the bottom of the canal and then drawn backward, cutting the grass, which rose to the surface where it was gathered upon the boats. Or material for green manure may be cut on grave, mountain or hill lands, as described under Fig. 115.
图 166、日本，在第一次耕作移栽水稻田后，平整土壤并拔除杂草。
Fig. 166.—Smoothing the soil and pulling weeds after the first working of a field of transplanted rice, Japan.
稻草、其他谷物的秸秆以及任何不能用作燃料的植物的茎秆也可以被加工到稻田的泥土中，就像水稻移植后经常散落在水面上的谷壳一样，如图168所示。
The straw of rice and other grain and the stems of any plant not usable as fuel may also be worked into the mud of rice fields, as may the chaff which is often scattered upon the water after the rice is transplanted, as in Fig. 168.
上述国家已提及利用各种废弃物来维持土壤生产力，但为了帮助西方国家认识到这种经济模式的最终必要性，有必要更明确地阐述日本的做法。国家农商部的川口博士根据他们的记录告诉我，1908年，日本生产并施用于田地的肥料有23,850,295吨；堆肥有22,812,787吨；进口了753,074吨商业肥料，其中7000吨是各种形式的磷酸盐。除此之外，她还必须施用不少于 1,404,000 吨燃料灰和 10,185,500 吨在其山地和杂草地上种植的绿肥产品，而所有这些施用于不到 14,000,000英亩的耕地，需要强调的是，他们这样做是因为他们还没有找到更好的方法来永久保持能够养活数百万人口的肥力。
Reference has been made to the utilization of waste of various kinds in these countries to maintain the productive power of their soils, but it is worth while, in the interests of western nations, as helping them to realize the ultimate necessity of such economies, to state again, in more explicit terms, what Japan is doing. Dr. Kawaguchi, of the National Department of Agriculture and Commerce, taking his data from their records, informed me that Japan produced, in 1908, and applied to her fields, 23,850,295 tons of human manure; 22,812,787 tons of compost; and she imported 753,074 tons of commercial fertilizers, 7000 of which were phosphates in one form or another. In addition to these she must have applied not less than 1,404,000 tons of fuel ashes and 10,185,500 tons of green manure products grown on her hill and weed lands, and all of these applied to less than 14,000,000 acres of cultivated field, and it should be emphasized that this is done because as yet they have found no better way of permanently maintaining a fertility capable of feeding her millions.
图 167——中国江苏省，一船从运河底部割下的草，将用作绿肥或制备堆肥。
Fig. 167.—Boat load of grass cut from bottom of canal, to be used as green manure or in preparing compost fertilizer, Kiangsu, China.
除了施肥、移栽和除草之外，水稻还有繁重的灌溉工作需要维护，直到水稻接近成熟。灌溉用水大部分依靠畜力，其中很大一部分依靠人力。图169显示了两个穿着凉爽、宽松、不着地的夏装的中国男子，他们用吊篮甩水，令人惊讶的是，用这种方法可以将水位升高三到四英尺。图27和图123中描述了便携式卷扬机，图170显示了直隶广泛使用的四角锥形水桶和扫帚。这名男子每天供水足够灌溉半英亩土地，将水位提升了八英尺。
Besides fertilizing, transplanting and weeding the rice crop there is the enormous task of irrigation to be maintained until the rice is nearly matured. Much of the water used is lifted by animal power and a large share of this is human. Fig. 169 shows two Chinese men in their cool, capacious, nowhere-touching summer trousers flinging water with the swinging basket, and it is surprising the amount of water which may be raised three to four feet by this means. The portable spool windlass, in Figs. 27 and 123, has been described, and Fig. 170 shows the quadrangular, cone-shaped bucket and sweep extensively used in Chihli. This man was supplying water sufficient for the irrigation of half an acre, per day, lifting the water eight feet.
图 168 将谷壳施用于稻田作为肥料。
Fig. 168.—Applying chaff to a rice field as a fertilizer.
中国最常用的泵的形状和驱动泵所需的脚力如图171所示。三个男人图150中展示了一个类似的泵的工作原理，图42中可以看到三个男人使用脚踏泵的近距离视图，图172中还可以看到另一个男人站在一片被水淹没的田地旁边。从这里可以看到一位老农夫告诉我们，两个人用这个泵将水抬高了三英尺，能够在两小时内将两亩地淹没在三英寸深的水里。这是以每人每十小时2.5英亩英寸的水计算的，而我们的货币是12到15美分，这样一来，16英亩英寸的水，或者说一个季节的供水量，在雇佣和养活苦力的情况下，成本是77到96美分。这就是以美国货币衡量的中国水泵的人力效率。
The form of pump most used in China and the foot-power for working it are seen in Fig. 171. Three men working a similar pump are seen in Fig. 150, a closer view of three men working the foot-power may be seen in Fig. 42 and still another stands adjacent to a series of flooded fields in Fig. 172. Where this view was taken the old farmer informed us that two men, with this pump, lifting water three feet, were able to cover two mow of land with three inches of water in two hours. This is at the rate of 2.5 acre-inches of water per ten hours per man, and for 12 to 15 cents, our currency, thus making sixteen acre-inches, or the season’s supply of water, cost 77 to 96 cents, where coolie labor is hired and fed. Such is the efficiency of human power applied to the Chinese pump, measured in American currency.
图 169——中国直隶省利用吊篮灌溉的灌溉方式。
Fig. 169.—Irrigation by means of the swinging basket, Province of Chihli, China.
这种泵只是一个敞开的箱槽，里面有一条木链，上面载着一系列松散的木板，这些木板将水从运河中抽出来，然后排出将其运入田地。水槽和水斗的尺寸各不相同，以适应所施加的功率和要提的水量。尽管它看起来很粗糙，但在初始成本、维护或适合中国国情的效率方面，西方制造业中没有任何东西可以与之竞争，而这些人最典型的特征就是他们各种高效、简单的设备，他们将这些设备的各个构造和成本都降到了最低。用最简单的方法可以取得最大的成果。如果必须架设一条运河，而它太宽，一桥无法覆盖，中国工程师可以在某个方便的地方架设桥梁，等建成后再将运河转向桥下。我们在松江附近一座新的铁路桥上就看到了这种情况。桥建成后，河水刚刚转向桥下，不得不自行开挖。这节省了大量开支，而且运河的交通也没有受到阻碍。
This pump is simply an open box trough in which travels a wooden chain carrying a series of loosely fitting boards which raise the water from the canal, discharging it into the field. The size of the trough and of the buckets are varied to suit the power applied and the amount of water to be lifted. Crude as it appears there is nothing in western manufacture that can compete with it in first cost, maintenance or efficiency for Chinese conditions and nothing is more characteristic of all these people than their efficient, simple appliances of all kinds, which they have reduced to the lowest terms in every feature of construction and cost. The greatest results are accomplished by the simplest means. If a canal must be bridged and it is too wide to be covered by a single span, the Chinese engineer may erect it at some convenient place and turn the canal under it when completed. This we saw in the case of a new railroad bridge near Sungkiang. The bridge was completed and the water had just been turned under it and was being compelled to make its own excavation. Great expense had been saved while traffic on the canal had not been obstructed.
图 170。直隶灌溉用的井筒和四角锥形水桶。
Fig. 170.—Well sweep and quadrangular, conical water bucket used for irrigation in Chihli.
在日本的脚踏轮中，所有齿轮都被取消了，而是人自己踩着桨行走，如图173所示。有些轮子的直径为十英尺，具体取决于水必须提升的高度。
In the foot-power wheel of Japan all gearing is eliminated and the man walks the paddles themselves, as seen in Fig. 173. Some of these wheels are ten feet in diameter, depending upon the hight the water must he lifted.
这三个国家都广泛使用畜力灌溉，主要使用的就是图158所示的动力轮。下图（图174）展示了浙江和江苏省最常见的棚屋类型，那里的棚屋数量非常多。我们数了一下，在半径半英里的半圆形区域内，有多达40个这样的棚屋。无论晴天还是雨天，它们都能为牲畜提供舒适的环境，因为稻田里的水在任何情况下都不能缺水，而且家畜在任何地方都能得到友善、周到的照顾。
Irrigation by animal power is extensively practiced in each of the three countries, employing mostly the type of power wheel shown in Fig. 158. The next illustration, Fig. 174, shows the most common type of shelter seen in Chekiang and Kiangsu provinces, which are there very numerous. We counted as many as forty such shelters in a semicircle of half a mile radius. They provide comfort for the animals during both sunshine and rain, for under no conditions must the water be permitted to run low on the rice fields, and everywhere their domestic animals receive kind, thoughtful treatment.
图 171——中国三人脚踏木链泵，广泛用于中国各地灌溉。
Fig. 171.—Three-man Chinese foot-power and wooden chain pump extensively used for irrigation in various parts of China.
在水位较低的河段，当溪流有足够的落差时，人们通常使用水轮，水轮的周围装有水桶，以便在经过时装满水。水通过水流，到达最高水位后流入一个带有导管的容器中，导管将水引到田里。在四川省，有些水流车体型巨大，结构精美，令人联想到摩天轮。承蒙罗林·T·张伯伦 (Rollin T. Chamberlin) 好意，我们获准在图 175中展示其中一个水流车的视图，他拍摄了这张照片，并以此为基础制作了这幅版画。拍摄这张照片时，这个水流车的直径约为 40 英尺，正在运转，将水提升并倒入水流车顶部附近的水平水槽中，水槽由水流车远端的一对粗杆支撑。水槽向左上方天际延伸，是一根长长的管道，由连接在一起的竹子制成，用于将水输送到田里。
In the less level sections, where streams have sufficient fall, current wheels are in common use, carrying buckets near their circumference arranged so as to fill when passing through the water, and to empty after reaching the highest level into a receptacle provided with a conduit which leads the water to the field. In Szechwan province some of these current wheels are so large and gracefully constructed as to strongly suggest Ferris wheels. A view of one of these we are permitted to present in Fig. 175, through the kindness of Rollin T. Chamberlin who took the photograph from which the engraving was prepared. This wheel which was some forty feet in diameter, was working when the snap shot was taken, raising the water and pouring it into the horizontal trough seen near the top of the wheel, carried at the summit of a pair of heavy poles standing on the far side of the wheel. From this trough, leading away to the left above the sky line, is the long pipe, consisting of bamboo stems joined together, for conveying the water to the fields.
图 172——最近，田地里用中国脚踏链条泵灌溉，准备耕种水稻。
Fig. 172.—Fields recently flooded with the Chinese foot-power chain pump preparatory to plowing for rice.
收获季节到来时，尽管谷物种植面积广阔，产量高达数亿蒲式耳，但由于地块分散，以及田地面积有限，我们所有的机器收割方式都无法实现。甚至连收割机发明之前的谷物摇篮都无法满足我们的需求，我们仍然需要用老式的镰刀（如图176所示）来完成这项艰巨的任务，用镰刀一茬一茬地收割插好的稻子。
When the harvest time has come, notwithstanding the large acreage of grain, yielding hundreds of millions of bushels, the small, widely scattered holdings and the surface of the fields render all of our machine methods quite impossible. Even our grain cradle, which preceded the reaper, would not do, and the great task is still met with the old time sickle, as seen in Fig. 176, cutting the rice hill by hill, as it was transplanted.
图 173.日本灌溉脚轮。
Fig. 173.—Japanese irrigation foot-wheel.
在收割之前，种子成熟后，要将水放掉，让土地干燥变硬。雨季尚未结束，必须格外小心地养护作物。可以将稻捆沿着稻田边缘成排地捆扎，如图176所示；也可以将稻捆头朝下悬挂在竹竿上，如图177所示。
Previous to the time for cutting, after the seed is well matured, the water is drawn off and the land permitted to dry and harden. The rainy season is not yet over and much care must be exercised in curing the crop. The bundles may be shocked in rows along the margins of the paddies, as seen in Fig. 176, or they may be suspended, heads down, from bamboo poles as seen in Fig. 177.
脱粒是通过将稻穗拉过一个金属梳齿来完成的，如图178所示，这个梳子安装在篮子后面的下角附近。在梳齿上，一个男人和一个女人正用一个大型双扇子扬去谷粒中的尘土和糠秕。中国和日本长期以来一直使用基于我国农民使用的原理并且与之非常相似的扬米机。稻米脱粒后，必须去壳才能食用。图179显示了日本人使用的最古老、最简单的抛光方法，即利用稻米自身的摩擦进行抛光。将一定量的稻米倒入容器中，用力将长头柱塞插入稻米中，迫使谷粒相互滑动，直到通过摩擦达到所需的效果。同样的抛光方法，规模更大，是通过人体重量推动柱塞来实现的。一群工人踩着加重柱塞的杠杆手柄，将柱塞抬起，然后让它们在重力的作用下落下。然而，最近在日本，使用汽油发动机驱动的磨坊也用于脱壳和抛光。
The threshing is accomplished by drawing the heads of the rice through the teeth of a metal comb mounted as seen at the right in Fig. 178, near the lower corner, behind the basket, where a man and woman are occupied in winnowing the dust and chaff from the grain by means of a large double fan. Fanning mills built on the principle of those used by our farmers and closely resembling them have long been used in both China and Japan. After the rice is threshed the grain must be hulled before it can serve as food, and the oldest and simplest method of polishing used by the Japanese is seen in Fig. 179, where the friction of the grain upon itself does the polishing. A quantity of rice is poured into the receptacle when, with heavy blows, the long-headed plunger is driven into the mass of rice, thus forcing the kernels to slide over one another until, by their abrasion, the desired result is secured. The same method of polishing, on a larger scale, is accomplished where the plungers are worked by the weight of the body, a series of men stepping upon lever handles of weighted plungers, raising them and allowing them to fall under the force of the weight attached. Recently, however, mills worked by gasoline engines are in operation for both hulling and polishing, in Japan.
图 174——中国江苏省运河岸边的动力轮棚。
Fig. 174.—Power-wheel shelter on bank of canal, in Kiangsu province, China.
图175——中国四川省正在使用的大型水车。摄影：Rollin T. Chamberlin。
Fig. 175.—Large current water-wheel in use in Szechwan province, China. Photograph by Rollin T. Chamberlin.
图 176、日本农民用旧式镰刀收割水稻。
Fig. 176.—Japanese farmers harvesting rice with the old-time sickle.
稻草在当地人民的经济生活中用途广泛，其重要性几乎与稻米本身不相上下。稻草可用作牛马的饲料和垫料；可用作住宅和其他庇护所的茅草；可用作燃料；可用作覆盖物；可作为土壤有机质的来源；也可用作肥料，这些都赋予了它巨大的经济价值。除了这些最终用途之外，稻草还被广泛用于制造大量物品。据估计，日本每年用稻草制成的袋子（如图180和181所示）不少于1.887亿个，价值311万美元，用于运输3.4615亿蒲式耳谷物和2819万蒲式耳豆类；此外，还有大量的袋子用于运输鱼类和其他经过处理的肥料。
The many uses to which rice straw is put in the economies of these people make it almost as important as the rice itself. As food and bedding for cattle and horses; as thatching material for dwellings and other shelters; as fuel; as a mulch; as a source of organic matter in the soil, and as a fertilizer, it represents a money value which is very large. Besides these ultimate uses the rice straw is extensively employed in the manufacture of articles used in enormous quantities. It is estimated that not less than 188,700,000 bags such as are seen in Figs. 180 and 181, worth $3,110,000 are made annually from the rice straw in Japan, for handling 346,150,000 bushels of cereals and 28,190,000 bushels of beans; and besides these, great numbers of bags are employed in transporting fish and other prepared manures.
图 177——日本，人们在田间搭建竹架，悬挂稻捆，准备脱粒。
Fig. 177.—Suspending rice bundles from bamboo frames set up in the fields for curing the grain, preparatory to threshing, Japan.
兵库县面积 596 平方英里与罗德岛712平方英里的农田相比，兵库县的农民在1906年265,040英亩的土地上生产了10,584,000蒲式耳的大米，价值16,191,400美元，平均每英亩产量接近40蒲式耳，仅谷物一项的总收益就达到61美元。此外，这些农民在同一土地上、同一季节种植了至少一种其他作物。其中，大麦的平均产量超过每英亩26蒲式耳，价值17美元。
In the prefecture of Hyogo, with 596 square miles of farm land, as compared with Rhode Island’s 712 square miles, Hyogo farmers produced in 1906, on 265,040 acres, 10,584,000 bushels of rice worth $16,191,400, securing an average yield of almost forty bushels per acre and a gross return of $61 for the grain alone. In addition to this, these farmers grew on the same land, the same season, at least one other crop. Where this was barley the average yield exceeded twenty-six bushels per acre, worth $17.
图178——日本人用大型双扇簸米，扇子由一对竹柄驱动。右边放着一把金属梳子，用来将稻米从稻草中分离出来。
Fig. 178.—Winnowing rice in Japan, using the large double fan worked by a pair of bamboo handles. A metal comb for removing the rice from the straw stands at the right.
在农活期间，这些日本家庭利用夜间和冬季闲暇时间，用一部分稻草制作了 8,980,000 块不同类型的垫子和网，市场价值为 262,000 美元；4,838,000 个袋子，价值 185,000 美元；874.2万双拖鞋，价值3.4万美元；625.4万双凉鞋，价值3万美元；以及价值6.4万美元的杂货。这些收入总计超过2100万美元，来自十一个半乡镇的农田和农民家庭的劳动，平均每英亩收入80美元，占该州农田面积的近四分之三。照此速度，我们160英亩农场的四个“四十英亩”中，有三个农场的年总收入应为9600美元，而第四个“四十英亩”应能支付所有开支。
In connection with their farm duties these Japanese families manufactured, from a portion of their rice straw, at night and during the leisure hours of winter, 8,980,000 pieces of matting and netting of different kinds having a market value of $262,000; 4,838,000 bags worth $185,000; 8,742,000 slippers worth $34,000; 6,254,000 sandals worth $30,000; and miscellaneous articles worth $64,000. This is a gross earning of more than $21,000,000 from eleven and a half townships of farm land and the labor of the farmers’ families, an average earning of $80 per acre on nearly three-fourths of the farm land of this prefecture. At this rate three of the four forties of our 160-acre farms should bring a gross annual income of $9,600 and the fourth forty should pay the expenses.
图 179. 日本用于抛光大米的大型木制研钵。
Fig. 179.—Large wooden mortar used for the polishing of rice in Japan.
在奈良实验站，我们得知，该县丰收稻米的货币价值为：稻米每英亩90美元，未加工稻草每英亩8美元；裸大麦每英亩36美元，稻草每英亩2美元。这里的农民实行稻麦轮作，每英亩4到5年，之后种植夏季瓜类作物，每英亩价值320美元；第五年或第六年则种植其他蔬菜代替稻米，每英亩价值80日元，即每英亩160美元。为了获得绿肥，每年11月在大麦行间空地种植大豆。大麦收割一周后，大豆的产量为每英亩160坎，即每英亩5290磅。这些大豆被翻耕，土地适合种植水稻。按照这样的产量，奈良农民在五分之四或六分之五的稻田上，每年每英亩的总收入为136美元，在剩下的五分之一或六分之一的稻田上，每英亩的收入为480美元，这还不包括用于维持土壤氮和有机质的大豆年产量，也不包括他们从家庭制造业获得的收入。与我们处于同一纬度的南大西洋和墨西哥湾沿岸各州的农民能否达到这一标准？我们认为他们没有理由做不到，但前提是灌溉、施肥和适当的轮作，并实行多茬种植。
At the Nara Experiment Station we were informed that the money value of a good crop of rice in that prefecture should be placed at ninety dollars per acre for the grain and eight dollars for the unmanufactured straw; thirty-six dollars per acre for the crop of naked barley and two dollars per acre for the straw. The farmers here practice a rotation of rice and barley covering four or five years, followed by a summer crop of melons, worth $320 per acre and some other vegetable instead of the rice on the fifth or sixth year, worth eighty yen per tan, or $160 per acre. To secure green manure for fertilizing, soy beans are planted each year in the space between the rows of barley, the barley being planted in November. One week after the barley is harvested the soy beans, which produce a yield of 160 kan per tan, or 5290 pounds per acre, are turned under and the ground fitted for rice, At these rates the Nara farmers are producing on four-fifths or five-sixths of their rice lands a gross earning of $136 per acre annually, and on the other fifth or sixth, an earning of $480 per acre, not counting the annual crop of soy beans used in maintaining the nitrogen and organic matter in their soils, and not counting their earnings from home manufactures. Can the farmers of our south Atlantic and Gulf Coast states, which are in the same latitude, sometime attain to this standard? We see no reason why they should not, but only with the best of irrigation, fertilization and proper rotation, with multiple cropping.
图 180。日本用稻草制成的袋子装米。
Fig. 180.—Sacking rice in bags made from the rice straw, Japan.
图 181——日本，将大米装入稻草制成的袋子中装运。
Fig. 181.—Loading, for shipment, rice put up in bags made from the rice straw, Japan.
图 182——一个日本家庭正在收割和脱粒大麦，大麦是水稻种植前的冬季作物。
Fig. 182.—A Japanese family gathering and threshing barley, grown as a winter crop before rice.
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东方另一个伟大产业，从某种程度上来说，也是最令人瞩目的产业之一，就是丝绸生产，它能将丝绸制成世界上最精致、最美丽的织物。丝绸的非凡之处在于其规模；其起源似乎至少在公元前2600年就已在古老的中国；其根源在于对一种森林野生昆虫的驯化；其发展历程长达四千多年，不断发展壮大，甚至一度有价值100万美元的丝绸产品运抵我国西海岸，并通过特快专递运往纽约，用于圣诞节贸易。
Another of the great and in some ways one of the most remarkable industries of the Orient is that of silk production, and its manufacture into the most exquisite and beautiful fabrics in the world. Remarkable for its magnitude; for having had its birthplace apparently in oldest China, at least 2600 years B. C.; for having been founded on the domestication of a wild insect of the woods; and for having lived through more than four thousand years, expanding until a $1,000,000 cargo of the product has been laid down on our western coast at one time and rushed by special fast express to New York City for the Christmas trade.
1907年，日本用1715.4万蒲式耳的蚕茧生产了2607.2万磅生丝，并以957560英亩的桑叶喂养蚕。以日本出口丝绸的售价计算，这些生丝的价值高达1.24亿美元，相当于整个帝国人口的人均收入超过2美元；而如图184、185、186和187所示，1906年，从事养蚕业的家庭共有140.7766个，约有700万人。
Japan produced in 1907 26,072,000 pounds of raw silk from 17,154,000 bushels of cocoons, feeding the silkworms from mulberry leaves grown on 957,560 acres. At the export selling price of this silk in Japan the crop represents a money value of $124,000,000, or more than two dollars per capita for the entire population of the Empire; and engaged in the care of the silkworms, as seen in Figs. 184, 185, 186 and 187, there were, in 1906, 1,407,766 families or some 7,000,000 people.
理查德在其《中华帝国地理志》中指出，1905年中国向所有国家出口的生丝总量为30,413,200磅，按日本出口价格计算，价值1.45亿美元。理查德还指出，中国每年向法国出口的丝绸价值达10,000,000英镑，这仅占总额的 12%，由此可见，仅其出口总额就已接近 4 亿美元。
Richard’s geography of the Chinese Empire places the total export of raw silk to all countries, from China, in 1905, at 30,413,200 pounds, and this, at the Japanese export price, represents a value of $145,000,000. Richard also states that the value of the annual Chinese export of silk to France amounts to 10,000,000 pounds sterling and that this is but twelve per cent of the total, from which it appears that her total export alone reaches a value near $400,000,000.
中国人用丝绸做衣服比日本人更普遍，而且中国人口是日本的八倍，国内丝绸消费量必然很大，其年产量也必然远远超过日本。霍西估计四川的生丝产量为543.95万磅，几乎相当于日本总产量的四分之一，其他八个省份也广泛种植丝绸，这些省份的面积加起来几乎是日本的五倍。因此，中国生丝年产量的保守估计应该在1.2亿磅左右，加上日本和韩国的产量，这三个国家每年的生丝产量可能超过1.5亿磅，总价值约为7亿美元；其价值与小麦相当。它是美国的主要农作物，但产区面积不到美国的八分之一。
The use of silk in wearing apparel is more general among the Chinese than among the Japanese, and with China’s eightfold greater population, the home consumption of silk must be large indeed and her annual production must much exceed that of Japan. Hosie places the output of raw silk in Szechwan at 5,439,500 pounds, which is nearly a quarter of the total output of Japan, and silk is extensively grown in eight other provinces, which together have an area nearly fivefold that of Japan. It would appear, therefore, that a low estimate of China’s annual production of raw silk must be some 120,000,000 pounds, and this, with the output of Japan and Korea, would make a product for the three countries probably exceeding 150,000,000 pounds annually, representing a total value of perhaps $700,000,000; quite equalling in value the wheat crop of the United States, but produced on less than one-eighth of the area.
图 184——日本，将蚕卵从产卵的纸上取出，准备孵化。
Fig. 184.—Removing silkworm eggs from sheets of paper where they were laid, preparatory for hatching, Japan.
根据丹多拉伯爵的观察，这些贡献了巨额利润的蚕体型非常小，大约70万条蚕在孵化时体重只有1磅，但它们生长非常迅速，蜕皮四次，第一次蜕皮重15磅，第二次94磅，第三次400磅，第四次蜕皮重1628磅，成熟时体重接近5吨——9500磅。但根据帕顿的说法，在大约36天内完成这一生长过程，这70万条蚕在第一次蜕皮时吃掉了105磅，第二次315磅，第三次1050磅，第四次3150磅，在吐丝前的最后阶段，它们吃了19215磅，因此，它们总共消耗了近12吨桑叶，产出了近5吨的活体重量，或者说，两磅半的绿叶对应一磅的生长量。
According to the observations of Count Dandola, the worms which contribute to this vast earning are so small that some 700,000 of them weigh at hatching only one pound, but they grow very rapidly, shed their skins four times, weighing 15 pounds at the time of the first moult, 94 pounds at the second, 400 pounds at the third, 1628 pounds at the fourth moulting and when mature have come to weigh nearly five tons—9500 pounds. But in making this growth during about thirty-six days, according to Paton, the 700,000 worms have eaten 105 pounds by the time of the first moult; 315 pounds by the second; 1050 pounds by the third; 3150 pounds by the fourth, and in the final period, before spinning, 19,215 pounds, thus consuming in all nearly twelve tons of mulberry leaves in producing nearly five tons of live weight, or at the rate of two and a half pounds of green leaf to one pound of growth.
图 185——喂蚕。16 个竹盘里养着蚕，其中一个已经从架子上取下来，日本女孩正在上面铺上新鲜的桑叶。
Fig. 185.—Feeding silkworms. One of the 16 bamboo trays, on which the silkworms are feeding, has been removed from the racks and Japanese girls are spreading over it a fresh supply of mulberry leaves.
根据佩顿的说法，70万条蚕蛹的重量在1400到2100磅之间，而根据四川省霍西的观察，这些蚕蛹的生丝重量约为其十二分之一。以此计算，从蚕卵孵化出的1磅蚕蛹可产出116到175磅生丝，按1907年日本出口价格计算，价值在550到832美元之间，而生产1磅生丝则需要164磅绿桑叶。
According to Paton, the cocoons from the 700,000 worms would weigh between 1400 and 2100 pounds and these, according to the observations of Hosie in the province of Szechwan, would yield about one-twelfth their weight of raw silk. On this basis the one pound of worms hatched from the eggs would yield between 116 and 175 pounds of raw silk, worth, at the Japanese export price for 1907, between $550 and $832, and 164 pounds of green mulberry leaves would be required to produce a pound of silk.
图 186、为蚕提供吐丝结茧的地方。
Fig. 186.—Providing places for silkworms to spin their cocoons.
我们采访了一位浙江省的中国银行家，他告诉我们，蚕卵铺在一张12英寸乘18英寸的纸上，孵化出来的幼虫长大后会消耗2660磅桑叶，吐丝21.6磅。这相当于每磅桑丝需要消耗123磅桑叶。1907年，日本的桑蚕产量为2607.2万磅，种植面积为957560英亩，平均单产为每英亩桑树产出 27.23 磅生丝，这就需要每英亩平均产出 4465 磅绿桑叶，每磅桑丝的产量为 164 磅。
A Chinese banker in Chekiang province, with whom we talked, stated that the young worms which would hatch from the eggs spread on a sheet of paper twelve by eighteen inches would consume, in coming to maturity, 2660 pounds of mulberry leaves and would spin 21.6 pounds of silk. This is at the rate of 123 pounds of leaves to one pound of silk. The Japanese crop for 1907, 26,072,000 pounds, produced on 957,560 acres, is a mean yield of 27.23 pounds of raw silk per acre of mulberries, and this would require a mean yield of 4465 pounds of green mulberry leaves per acre, at the rate of 164 pounds per pound of silk.
这些国家的普通桑蚕主要产自三种桑树，通常需要采摘三次桑叶，用于春、夏、秋三季的蚕丝生产。我们在日本名古屋实验站了解到，那里春季桑叶丰产，每亩桑叶第一茬产量为400坎，第二茬为150坎，第三茬为250坎，总产量超过每英亩13吨绿叶。然而，这似乎远高于当时日本帝国的平均产量。
Ordinary silk in these countries is produced largely from three varieties of mulberries, and from them there may be three pickings of leaves for the rearing of a spring, summer and autumn crop of silk. We learned at the Nagoya Experiment Station, Japan, that there good spring yields of mulberry leaves are at the rate of 400 kan, the second crop, 150 kan, and the third crop, 250 kan per tan, making a total yield of over thirteen tons of green leaves per acre. This, however, seems to be materially higher than the average for the Empire.
图 187、根据形状和大小选择最好的茧（雌雄），用于繁殖。
Fig. 187.—Selecting the best cocoons, male and female determined by the shape and size, for purposes of breeding.
图188是浙江省一处桑园的近景。园子里施了大量渠泥，正准备剪下桑叶喂养第一批蚕。画面中，前面那棵树的枝干上放着一捆被剪下来的桑枝。桑树种植户通常不负责蚕的饲养，而这片桑园的桑叶售价为每担1墨西哥元，相当于每百磅32.25美分。一周后，江苏南京附近地区的售价也相同。
In Fig. 188 is a near view of a mulberry orchard in Chekiang province, which has been very heavily fertilized with canal mud, and which was at the stage for cutting the leaves to feed the first crop of silkworms. A bundle of cut limbs is in the crotch of the front tree in the view. Those who raise mulberry leaves are not usually the feeders of the silkworms and the leaves from this orchard were being sold at one dollar, Mexican, per picul, or 32.25 cents per one hundred pounds. The same price was being paid a week later in the vicinity of Nanking, Kiangsu province.
如图18—13所示，桑树在早春长出叶子之前的样子。长长的枝干是去年生长出来的嫩枝，从上一年至少采摘过一茬叶子。在健康的果园里，这些枝干可能有两到三英尺长。如果果园里的枝干刚被剪掉一部分，就会呈现出图19—14所示的样子。这些桑树有十二到十五年的历史了，枝干末端的扩大是由于年复一年地在几乎同一个地方频繁修剪造成的。树下的地面上密密麻麻地覆盖着刚刚开花的粉红三叶草，这些三叶草会被铲进土壤，为作物提供氮和有机质，而有机质的腐烂会释放出钾、磷和其他矿物质养分。
The mulberry trees, as they appear before coming into leaf in the early spring, may be seen in Fig. 189. The long limbs are the shoots of the last year’s growth, from which at least one crop of leaves had been picked, and in healthy orchards they may have a length of two to three feet. An orchard from a portion of which the limbs had just been cut, presented the appearance seen in Fig. 190. These trees were twelve to fifteen years old and the enlargements on the ends of the limbs resulted from the frequent pruning, year after year, at nearly the same place. The ground under these trees was thickly covered with a growth of pink clover just coming into bloom, which would be spaded into the soil, providing nitrogen and organic matter, whose decay would liberate potash, phosphorus and other mineral plant food elements for the crop.
图 188.中国浙江省桑园近景。
Fig. 188.—A near view of a mulberry orchard in Chekiang province, China.
图 191中，三排桑树，种植了四棵桑树之间相距约一英尺，矗立在一条狭窄的堤岸上，堤岸高出四英尺。这部分是由于将周围的田地改造成水稻田，部分是由于添加了用作肥料的运河淤泥。桑树两侧种植着温莎豆，左侧种植着油菜，这两种作物都将在六月初收获，届时，桑树所在的土地将被淹没、翻耕，然后移栽成水稻。这幅桑树和其他桑树的景色都是在图52所示的中国运河遍布的地区拍摄的。这座桑树园的农民刚刚砍下两大捆桑枝，准备在村里出售。他说，他的第一批桑叶通常每垅产量在3到20担之间，但第二批桑叶很少超过2到3担。如果第一茬和第二茬桑叶每垅合计产量为23担，那么每英亩产量将达到9.2吨，按上述价格计算，价值59.34美元。桑叶必须在采摘后立即新鲜交付，并且必须在当天喂食，在销售地点，将桑枝剥去叶子后捆成捆，留作燃料使用。
In Fig. 191 three rows of mulberry trees, planted four feet apart, stand on a narrow embankment raised four feet, partly through adjusting the surrounding fields for rice, and partly by additions of canal mud used as a fertilizer. On either side of the mulberries is a crop of windsor beans, and on the left a crop of rape, both of which would be harvested in early June, the ground where they stand flooded, plowed and transplanted to rice. This and the other mulberry views were taken in the extensively canalized portion of China represented in Fig. 52. The farmer owning this orchard had just finished cutting two large bundles of limbs for the sale of the leaves in the village. He stated that his first crop ordinarily yields from three to as many as twenty piculs per mow, but that the second crop seldom exceeded two to three piculs. The first and second crop of leaves, if yielding together twenty-three piculs per mow, would amount to 9.2 tons per acre, worth, at the price named, $59.34. Mulberry leaves must be delivered fresh as soon as gathered and must be fed the same day, the limbs, when stripped of their leaves, at the place where these are sold, are tied into bundles and reserved for use as fuel.
图 189. 多年生桑树的近景，显示了去年生长的枝干，当桑树长满叶子时，这些枝干将被砍伐到靠近老枝的位置。
Fig. 189.—Near view of mulberry tree many years old, showing limbs of the last year’s growth which will be cut close to the old wood when in full leaf.
图 190、桑树园最近修剪过，长出了第一批叶子，右边是未修剪的桑树。
Fig. 190.—Mulberry orchard recently pruned for the first crop of leaves, with unpruned trees along the right.
在中国南方，桑树是通过压条生根的低矮插枝种植的。我们之前提到过，我们乘坐“南宁”号轮船在广州三角洲地区航行了五个小时，途中经过了大片低矮的桑树田，当时桑树已长满叶子，起初人们误以为它们是即将开花的棉花。这种桑树的形状如图43所示，日本南部也采用同样的修剪方法。在日本中部，人们采用与浙江和江苏省类似的高枝修剪方法；但在日本北部，人们会直接采摘桑叶，就像所有地方一样，采摘最后一批桑叶，而在纬度更高的地区则不进行修剪。
In the south of China the mulberry is grown from low cuttings rooted by layering. We have before spoken of our five hours ride in the Canton delta region, on the steamer Nanning, through extensive fields of low mulberry then in full leaf, which were first mistaken for cotton nearing the blossom stage. This form of mulberry is seen in Fig. 43, and the same method of pruning is practiced in southern Japan. In middle Japan high pruning, as in Ckekiang and Kiangsu provinces, is followed, but in northern Japan the leaves are picked directly, as is the case with the last crop of leaves everywhere, pruning not being practiced in the more northern latitudes.
这些北方国家生产的丝绸并非全部来自家养的家蚕，大量的丝绸来自野生蚕吐丝，这些蚕以生长在中国、朝鲜和日本各地山地丘陵地带的橡树叶为食。在中国，数量最多的丝绸来自山东、河南、贵州和四川省采集的柞蚕（Antheraea pernyi）茧。在满洲山区，这种产业也规模庞大，蚕茧被运往山东省的芝罘，织成春亚纺丝。
Not all silk produced in these northern countries is from the domesticated Bombyx mori, large amounts being obtained from the spinnings of wild silkworms feeding upon the leaves of species of oak growing on the mountain and hill lands in various parts of China, Korea and Japan. In China the collections in largest amount are reeled from the cocoons of the tussur worm (Antheraea pernyi) gathered in Shantung, Honan, Kweichow and Szechwan provinces. In the hilly parts of Manchuria also this industry is attaining large proportions, the cocoons being sent to Chefoo in the Shantung province, to be woven into pongee silk.
图 191、三排桑树占据了一条狭长的堤岸，堤岸稍后将被淹没的稻田包围。
Fig. 191.—Three rows of mulberry trees occupying a long, narrow embankment which will be surrounded later by flooded rice fields.
兰多特（M. Randot）估计四川每年的野蚕茧产量为1018万磅，尽管亚历山大·霍西（Alexander Hosie）认为其中很大一部分可能来自贵州。理查德（Richard）估计1904年整个中国本土的野蚕生丝出口量为440万磅。这意味着野蚕茧的产量至少为7530万磅，可能还不到国内消费量的一半。
M. Randot has estimated the annual crop of wild silk cocoons in Szechwan at 10,180,000 pounds, although in the opinion of Alexander Hosie much of this may come from Kweichow. Richard places the export of raw wild silk from the whole of China proper, in 1904, at 4,400,000 pounds. This would mean not less than 75,300,000 pounds of wild cocoons and may be less than half the home consumption.
根据亚历山大·霍西收集的数据，1899年，仅通过纽川港（Newchwang）轮船出口的满洲柞蚕生丝就达1,862,448磅，价值1,721,200美元，而且产量还在迅速增长。前一年，通过同一港口轮船出口的柞蚕生丝为1,046,704磅。这些丝绸全部来自奉天南部的丘陵山区，西临辽宁平原，东临鸭绿江，面积约五千平方英里，我们通过安奉铁路就穿过了这片区域。
From data collected by Alexander Hosie it appears that in 1899 the export of raw tussur silk from Manchuria, through the port of Newchwang by steamer alone, was 1,862,448 pounds, valued at $1,721,200, and the production is increasing rapidly. The export from the same port the previous year, by steamer, was 1,046,704 pounds. This all comes from the hilly and mountain lands south of Mukden, lying between the Liao plain on the west and the Yalu river on the east, covering some five thousand square miles, which we crossed on the Antung-Mukden railway.
每个季节，野蚕会产下两窝，产卵期在五月初到十月初之间。秋季产下的茧会保存过冬，待蚕蛾孵化后，它们会被催促着在布片上产卵。蚕蛹孵化后，它们会以从山上采集的鲜嫩橡树叶为食，直到第一次换毛。之后，蚕蛹会被带到山上低矮的橡树林中，在那里觅食，并在树叶的掩护下吐丝结茧。
There are two broods of these wild silkworms each season, between early May and early October. Cocoons of the fall brood are kept through the winter and when the moths come forth they are caused to lay their eggs on pieces of cloth and when the worms are hatched they are fed until the first moult upon the succulent new oak leaves gathered from the hills, after which the worms are taken to the low oak growth on the hills where they feed themselves and spin their cocoons under the cover of leaves drawn about them.
第一窝留下的蛾子在具备受精能力后，会被用线绑在橡树丛里产卵，产下第二茬柞蚕丝。为了保证周围有足够的多汁叶片，橡树会定期修剪。
The moths reserved from the first brood, after becoming fertile, are tied by means of threads to the oak bushes where they deposit the eggs which produce the second crop of tussur silk. To maintain an abundance of succulent leaves within reach the oaks are periodically cut back.
因此，这些朴素的人们，耐心、节俭、不畏缩三个最古老民族的基本单位辛勤劳作，前往未开垦的山地，从野生橡树和它们帮助喂养的数百万昆虫中，不仅创造了宝贵的出口贸易，还获得了服装、燃料、肥料和食物的原料。缫丝时烹制的大蛹可以直接食用，也可以佐以酱汁调味后再食用。此外，每个茧中最后未缫丝的部分会被留下，制成丝絮和棺材中的软垫，富人将死者安葬于此。
Thus these plain people, patient, frugal, unshrinking from toil, the basic units of three of the oldest nations, go to the uncultivated hill lands and from the wild oak and the millions of insects which they help to feed upon it, not only create a valuable export trade but procure material for clothing, fuel, fertilizer and food, for the large chrysalides, cooked in the reeling of the silk, may be eaten at once or are seasoned with sauce to be used later. Besides this, the last unreelable portion of each cocoon is laid aside to be manufactured into silk wadding and into soft mattresses for caskets upon which the wealthy lay their dead.
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在中国和日本，茶叶种植是这些国家的另一项重要产业，其在人民福祉中所发挥的重要作用，与养蚕业不相上下，甚至更胜一筹。毋庸置疑，茶叶种植业的根基在于需要某种东西来使开水变得可口，方便饮用。在这些国家，饮用开水已被普遍采用，作为一种个人可用、非常有效且安全的防护措施，可以有效抵御那些在任何人口稠密的国家几乎无法从饮用水中清除的致命病菌。
The cultivation of tea in China and Japan is another of the great industries of these nations, taking rank with that of sericulture, if not above it, in the important part it plays in the welfare of the people. There is little reason to doubt that the industry has its foundation in the need of something to render boiled water palatable for drinking purposes. The drinking of boiled water has been universally adopted in these countries as an individually available, thoroughly efficient and safe guard against that class of deadly disease germs which it has been almost impossible to exclude from the drinking water of any densely peopled country.
从迄今为止实施的最彻底的卫生措施的成功程度来看，并考虑到随着人口增长必然会大幅增加的固有困难，现代方法最终必然会在卫生效率方面失败，必须以某种方式确保绝对安全，其效果类似于蒙古族很久以前采用的煮沸水，这种煮沸水可以在饮用前尽早杀死活性病菌。不容忽视的是，在中国和日本，由于农村人口密集，对饮用水进行煮沸的需求与大城市预防此类危险的需求相当，而我们的卫生工程师迄今为止只处理了这一最关键问题的城市阶段，并且主要……到目前为止，只有在人口相对稀少的山区才能获得水源。但这样的机会不可能无限期地存在，就像中国和日本的情况一样。伤寒疫情已经在我们的大城市爆发，市民们被建议将饮用水煮沸。
So far as may be judged from the success of the most thorough sanitary measures thus far instituted, and taking into consideration the inherent difficulties which must increase enormously with increasing populations, it appears inevitable that modern methods must ultimately fail in sanitary efficiency and that absolute safety must be secured in some manner having the equivalent effect of boiling water, long ago adopted by the Mongolian races, and which destroys active disease germs at the latest moment before using. And it must not be overlooked that the boiling of drinking water in China and Japan has been demanded quite as much because of congested rural populations as to guard against such dangers in large cities, while as yet our sanitary engineers have dealt only with the urban phases of this most vital problem and chiefly, too, thus far, only where it has been possible to procure the water supply in comparatively unpopulated hill lands. But such opportunities cannot remain available indefinitely, any more than they did in China and Japan, and already typhoid epidemics break out in our large cities and citizens are advised to boil their drinking water.
如果家庭饮茶习俗在世界大部分地区都能保持普遍性，尤其是如果饮茶习俗随着人口增长而增长，那么中国、韩国和日本的茶产业将拥有巨大的产业和商业前景，前提是它们能够在广阔且尚未开发的山坡上进一步发展茶文化；改进茶园种植方法和生产工艺；并发展出口贸易。这些国家拥有得天独厚的气候、土壤条件和充足的人口，足以大幅拓展茶产业。因此，有必要改进和拓展所有必要的生产方法，以便能够向市场提供品质保证、等级完全统一的纯茶，并以此维护国际茶产业的繁荣。严格的道德准则，确保所有相关人员都能获得公平的交易和公平的利润分配。
If tea drinking in the family is to remain general in most portions of the world, and especially if it shall increase in proportion to population, there is great industrial and commercial promise for China, Korea and Japan in their tea industry if they will develop tea culture still further over the extensive and still unused flanks of the hill lands; improve their cultural methods; their manufacture; and develop their export trade. They have the best, of climatic and soil conditions and people sufficiently capable of enormously expanding the industry. Both improvement and expansion of methods along all essential lines, are needed, enabling them to put upon the market pure teas of thoroughly uniform grades of guaranteed quality, and with these the maintenance of an international code of rigid ethics which shall secure to all concerned a square deal and a fair division of the profits.
图 192. 茶园近景，地面覆盖着厚厚的稻草，毗邻日本农村。
Fig. 192.—Near view of tea garden with ground heavily mulched with straw, adjoining a Japanese farm village.
稻米、丝绸和茶叶的生产是这些国家拥有得天独厚的条件和条件，能够经济地发展和维持的三大产业。其他国家或许可以更好地根据自身情况选择其他专业化发展方式，而一个时代即将到来：以最低成本实现最大产量，并以此为基础，以各方面都值得的清洁、健康的生活，将决定社会进步和国际关系的方向。随着世界和平的可能性和必要性的觉醒，我们必须认识到，世界和平将是普遍的，涵盖工业、商业、知识和宗教领域，并能使几个世纪以来蹂躏世界的血腥屠杀永远无法重演。
The production of rice, silk and tea are three industries which these nations are preeminently circumstanced and qualified to economically develop and maintain. Other nations may better specialize along other lines which fitness determines, and the time is coming when maximum production at minimum cost as the result of clean robust living that in every way is worth while, will determine lines of social progress and of international relations. With the vital awakening to the possibility of and necessity for world peace, it must be recognized that this can be nothing less than universal, industrial, commercial, intellectual and religious, in addition to making impossible forever the bloody carnage that has ravaged the world through all the centuries.
随着全球快速交通运输和通讯的扩展，我们正迅速进入一种社会发展状态，将整个世界视为一个互惠互利、和谐共存的产业单元。必须认识到，在某些地区，由于其独特的土壤、气候和人口条件，能够生产出比其他地方更好、更便宜的必需产品，从而足以支付运输成本。如果中国、韩国、日本以及印度部分地区能够并且愿意生产出最优质、最廉价的丝绸、茶叶或大米，那么寻求互惠互利的贸易必然符合最大利益，而设立不可逾越的关税壁垒无异于宣战，无助于世界和平与进步。
With the extension of rapid transportation and more rapid communication throughout the world, we are fast entering the state of social development which will treat the whole world as a mutually helpful, harmonious industrial unit. It must be recognized that in certain regions, because of peculiar fitness of soil, climate and people, needful products can be produced there better and enough more cheaply than elsewhere to pay the cost of transportation. If China, Korea and Japan, with parts of India, can and will produce the best and cheapest silks, teas or rice, it must be for the greatest good to seek a mutually helpful exchange, and the erection of impassable tariff barriers is a declaration of war and cannot make for world peace and world progress.
茶文化传入中国的日期似乎不详。它大约在公元纪年之前，传统上认为它比公元纪年早2700多年。日本人明确地将茶传入他们的岛屿的时间定在公元805年，并声称茶是从中国传入的。无论茶叶种植起源于这些国家，也无论何时，茶树种植早已在很久以前就已达到一定规模，并且至今仍保持着较大的规模。1907年日本有124,482英亩的土地被茶园和茶园占据。这些茶园共产出60,877,975磅的茶，平均每英亩产量为489磅。在日本近200平方英里的土地上，每年生产的茶叶超过6000万磅，但只有不到2200万磅在国内消费，其余部分则出口，1907年的现金价值为6,309,122美元，平均每磅售价16美分。
The date of the introduction of tea culture into China appears unknown. It was before the beginning of the Christian era and tradition would place it more than 2700 years earlier. The Japanese definitely date its introduction into their islands as in the year 805 A. D., and state its coming to them from China. However and whenever tea growing originated in these countries, it long ago attained and now maintains large proportions. In 1907 Japan had 124,482 acres of land occupied by tea gardens and tea plantations. These produced 60,877,975 pounds of cured tea, giving a mean yield of 489 pounds per acre. Of the more than sixty million pounds of tea produced annually on nearly two hundred square miles in Japan, less than twenty-two million pounds are consumed at home, the balance being exported at a cash value, in 1907, of $6,309,122, or a mean of sixteen cents per pound.
图 193、从远处望去，日本的茶园坐落在树木繁茂的山丘两侧。
Fig. 193.—Looking across a tea plantation located on the flanks of wooded hill lands rising in the background, Japan.
中国每年的茶叶产量远高于日本。霍西估计，仅四川每年向西藏出口的茶叶就达4000万磅，主要产自岷江以西的山区。理查德估计，1905年四川直接出口到国外的茶叶为1.76亿磅，1906年为1.80亿磅。因此，四川的年出口量肯定超过2亿磅，而其干制茶的总产量肯定超过4亿磅。
In China the volume of tea produced annually is much larger than in Japan. Hosie places the annual export from Szechwan into Tibet alone at 40,000,000 pounds and this is produced largely in the mountainous portion of the province west of the Min river. Richard places her direct export to foreign countries, in 1905, at 176,027,255 pounds; and in 1906 at 180,271,000 pounds, so that the annual export must exceed 200,000,000 pounds, and her total product of cured tea must be more than 400,000,000.
图192展示了日本茶树的大致外观。茶树的形态、叶子的形状和大小，以及浓密的绿色光泽的枝叶，都与我们常用于边界和树篱的黄杨木十分相似。当茶树还小的时候，还没有完全覆盖地面，行间就会种植其他作物。但当茶树长到最大尺寸，修剪后，树高及腰至胸时，行间通常会覆盖厚厚的稻草、树叶或从山地里捡来的草和杂草，它们既可以作为覆盖物，也可以作为肥料，防止山坡被冲刷，并迫使雨水均匀地渗入土壤。
The general appearance of tea bushes as they are grown in Japan is indicated in Fig. 192 The form of the bushes, the shape and size of the leaves and the dense green, shiny foliage quite suggests our box, so much used in borders and hedges. When the bushes are young, not covering the ground, other crops are grown between the rows, but as the bushes attain their full size, standing after trimming, waist to breast high, the ground between is usually thickly covered with straw, leaves or grass and weeds from the hill lands, which serve as a mulch, as a fertilizer, as a means of preventing washing on the hillsides, and to force the rain to enter the soil uniformly where it falls.
图 194 一群日本妇女正在采摘茶叶。
Fig. 194.—Group of Japanese women picking leaves of the tea plant.
相当大比例的茶树生长在住宅周围、土地上、小的、分散的、不规则的区域茶园不易耕种，但也有许多相当大的茶园，呈现出图193所示的外观。每次采摘完叶子后，茶树丛都会用修枝剪修剪一下，使一排排茶树看起来像精心修剪过的树篱。
Quite a large per cent of the tea bushes are grown on small, scattering, irregular areas about dwellings, on land not readily tilled, but there are also many tea plantations of considerable size, presenting the appearance seen in Fig. 193. After each picking of the leaves the bushes are trimmed back with pruning shears, giving the rows the appearance of carefully trimmed hedges.
图 195——日本正在称量新采摘的茶叶。
Fig. 195.—Weighing the freshly picked tea leaves in Japan.
茶叶是手工采摘的，一般是由妇女和女孩按照图 194所示的方式采摘的，她们将嫩的、新长出来的叶子收集到篮子里，然后称量，如图 195所示。
The tea leaves are hand picked, generally by women and girls, after the manner seen in Fig. 194, where they are gathering the tender, newly-formed leaves into baskets to be weighed fresh, as seen in Fig. 195.
通常每个季节都会收获三茬叶子，第一茬在日本每茬产量为一百斤，第二茬第二茬50坎，第三茬80坎。产量分别为每英亩3307磅、1653磅和2645磅，一季总产量为7605磅，种植者每磅绿叶可获得2.2美分到3美分多一点的收入，或者说每英亩总收入为167美元到209.5美元。
Three crops of leaves are usually gathered each season, the first yielding in Japan one hundred kan per tan, the second fifty kan and the third eighty kan per tan. This is at the rate of 3307 pounds, 1653 pounds, and 2645 pounds per acre, making a total of 7605 pounds for the season, from which the grower realizes from a little more than 2.2 to a little more than 3 cents per pound of the green leaves, or a gross earning of $167 to $209.50 per acre.
我们得知，茶园的肥料成本通常为每亩15至20日元，相当于每年每英亩30至40美元，施肥时间分别为秋季、早春和第一次采摘茶叶后。茶树还小的时候，行间种植一茬冬作物和一茬夏作物，例如蔬菜、豆类或大麦，每英亩的收益约为40美元。如果茶园得到精心照料和充足的施肥，据说可以持续生长一百年甚至更久。
We were informed that the usual cost for fertilizers for the tea orchards was 15 to 20 yen per tan, or $30 to $40 per acre per annum, the fertilizer being applied in the fall, in the early spring and again after the first picking of the leaves. While the tea plants are yet small one winter crop and one summer crop of vegetables, beans or barley are grown between the rows, these giving a return of some forty dollars per acre. Where the plantations are given good care and ample fertilization the life of a plantation may be prolonged continuously, it is said, through one hundred or more years.
我们从城子走到小幡，沿着茶区的一条乡间小路，路过一家茶房。这是一栋长方形的平房，四周排列着二十个茶炉，每个茶炉都开着窗，四周环绕着。每个茶炉前都放着盛着茶叶的托盘，一个只穿着马裤的日本男子正大汗淋漓地用手掌揉搓着茶叶。
During our walk from Joji to Kowata, along a country road in one of the tea districts, we passed a tea-curing house. This was a long rectangular, one-story building with twenty furnaces arranged, each under an open window, around the sides. In front of each heated furnace with its tray of leaves, a Japanese man, wearing only a breech cloth, and in a state of profuse perspiration, was busy rolling the tea leaves between the palms of his hands.
在另一个地方，我们目睹了低档茶末的制作过程。这种茶末是用必须摘除的灌木丛的叶子或修剪下来的叶子制成的。在这种情况下，人们会用连枷在打谷场上敲打干燥的灌木丛和叶子。这样制成的茶末供贫困户饮用。
At another place we witnessed the making of the low grade dust tea, which is prepared from the leaves of bushes which must be removed or from those of the prunings. In this case the dried bushes with their leaves were being beaten with flails on a threshing floor. The dust tea thus produced is consumed by the poorer people.
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6月6日，我们离开中国中部前往天津，再往北航行，从上海乘坐沿海轮船，再次在浑浊的海水中艰难前行，这片水域正是黄海的真正含义。我们的轮船在青岛停靠，搭载了一队德国士兵，之后又在烟台停靠，只有在这两处之间，海水才不算浑浊。但这还不是全部。从10日清晨到下午2点30分在天津抛锚，我们沿着蜿蜒的北河逆风而上，一路上都顶着一阵强风，风中夹杂着灰尘，那些待在甲板上的人，脸上一片灰蒙蒙的，仿佛刚开车穿越过科罗拉多沙漠一样；可见，亚洲内陆高地的土壤仍在借助洪水和风向东蔓延，进入河谷，蔓延到沿海平原很远的地方。在天津和北京之间的大片地区以及向北到沈阳的其他地点，人们系统地种植了树木和灌木，形成矩形篱笆，以控制风力和减少土壤的漂移，中间的空地上则种植了农田。
On the 6th of June we left central China for Tientsin and further north, sailing by coastwise steamer from Shanghai, again plowing through the turbid waters which give literal exactness to the name Yellow Sea. Our steamer touched at Tsingtao, taking on board a body of German troops, and again at Chefoo, and it was only between these two points that the sea was not strongly turbid. Nor was this all. From early morning of the 10th until we anchored at Tientsin, 2 :30 P. M., our course up the winding Pei ho was against a strong dust-laden wind which left those who had kept to the deck as grey as though they had ridden by automobile through the Colorado desert; so the soils of high interior Asia are still spreading eastward by flood and by wind into the valleys and far over the coastal plains. Over large areas between Tientsin and Peking and at other points northward toward Mukden trees and shrubs have been systematically planted in rectangular hedgerow lines, to check the force of the winds and reduce the drifting of soils, planted fields occupying the spaces between.
正是在这次旅行中，我们遇到了四川省顺庆的埃文斯医生。他的妻子是一位在中国妇女中行医的医生。在讨论中国人口可能的增长率时，她谈到自己通过实践了解到，很多母亲生了七到十一个孩子，但最终却只剩下一个、两个，最多三个。据说许多风俗习惯导致了儿童的高死亡率，其中之一就是在孩子长牙之前就给他们喂肉，母亲替孩子咀嚼，结果常常导致致命的抽搐。一位在山东长期工作的苏格兰医生，他从青岛乘船前往，回答了我关于他所在地区的家庭通常有多少的问题：“我不知道。这取决于收成。丰收年景时，家庭数量很多；饥荒年景时，女孩尤其会被处理掉，常常因为缺乏照顾而夭折。很多女孩在这种时候被卖到其他省份。”然而，这些说法无疑应该得到充分的理解。如果了解了这些报道所依据的案例的所有细节，事情可能会与这些冷冰冰的叙述所暗示的截然不同。
It was on this trip that we met Dr. Evans of Shunking, Szechwan province. His wife is a physician practicing among the Chinese women, and in discussing the probable rate of increase of population among the Chinese, it was stated that she had learned through her practice that very many mothers had borne seven to eleven children and yet but one, two or at most three, were living. It was said there are many customs and practices which determine this high mortality among children, one of which is that of feeding them meat before they have teeth, the mother masticating for the children, with the result that often fatal convulsions follow. A Scotch physician of long experience in Shantung, who took the steamer at Tsingtao, replied to my question as to the usual size of families in his circuit, “I do not know. It depends on the crops. In good years the number is large; in times of famine the girls especially are disposed of, often permitted to die when very young for lack of care. Many are sold at such times to go into other provinces.” Such statements, however, should doubtless be taken with much allowance. If all the details were known regarding the cases which have served as foundations for such reports, the matter might appear in quite a different light from that suggested by such cold recitals.
尽管中国的土地税很高，但埃文斯博士告诉我，同一项税一年征收两次甚至三次的情况并不少见。我询问了中国各地农民的土地税，发现税率从每亩3美分到1.5美元（墨西哥元）不等；每英亩约8美分到3.87美元不等。按照这些税率，一个40英亩的农场要缴纳3.20美元到154.80美元，四分之一英亩的农场则要缴纳这些税款的四倍。驻天津总领事E.T.威廉姆斯收集的数据显示，山东的土地税约为每英亩1美元，直隶则为20美分。江西省的税率为每亩200至300文；江苏省的税率为每亩500至600文；根据第76页的汇率，江西省每亩60至80文，或90文兑1.20元；江苏省每亩1.50元兑2.00元，或1.80元兑2.40元。最低税率为160英亩土地税96元，最高税率为384元。
Although land taxes are high in China Dr. Evans informed me that it is not infrequent for the same tax to be levied twice and even three times in one year. Inquiries regarding the land taxes among farmers in different parts of China showed rates running from three cents to a dollar and a half, Mexican, per mow; or from about eight cents to $3.87 gold, per acre. At these rates a forty acre farm would pay from $3.20 to $154.80, and a quarter section four times these amounts. Data collected by Consul-General E. T. Williams of Tientsin indicate that in Shantung the land tax is about one dollar per acre, and in Chihli, twenty cents. In Kiangsi province the rate is 200 to 300 cash per mow, and in Kiangsu, from 500 to 600 cash per mow, or, according to the rate of exchange given on page 76, from 60 to 80 cents, or 90 cents to $1.20 per acre in Kiangsi; and $1.50 to $2.00 or $1.80 to $2.40 in Kiangsu province. The lowest of these rates would make the land tax on 160 acres, $96, and the highest would place it at $384, gold.
在日本，税款按季度缴纳，国家、县和村庄的评估总额通常约占政府土地估价的10%。1907年，除福尔摩莎和库页岛外，灌溉田的平均估价为每滩35.35日元；旱田为9.40日元；菰田和牧场的估价为每滩0.22日元。这些土地的估价分别为每英亩70.70美元、18.80美元和0.44美元（黄金）。因此，40英亩稻田的税额为282.80美元；40英亩旱田为75.20美元；相同面积的菰田和杂草地为1.76美元（黄金）。
In Japan the taxes are paid quarterly and the combined amount of the national, prefectural and village assessments usually aggregates about ten per cent of the government valuation placed on the land. The mean valuation placed on the irrigated fields, excluding Formosa and Karafuto, was in 1907, 35.35 yen per tan; that of the upland fields, 9.40 yen, and the genya and pasture lands were given a valuation of .22 yen per tan. These are valuations of $70.70, $18.80 and $.44, gold, per acre, respectively, and the taxes on forty acres of paddy field would be $282.80; $75.20 on forty acres of upland field, and $1.76, gold, on the same area of the genya and weed lands.
埃文斯博士说，在农村里，人们做各种各样的工作都有报酬，妇女的年工资可能不会超过 8 墨西哥美元或 3.44 黄金美元。当我们问一个女人为什么要工作一整年只赚这么少的钱时，他回答说：“如果她不这样做，她就什么也赚不到，这些钱只能让她买衣服，甚至更多。”教堂里的棉纺工采购一磅棉花，归还棉线后会得到一又四分之一磅棉花作为报酬。
In the villages, where work of one or another kind is done for pay, Dr. Evans stated that a woman’s wage might not exceed $8, Mexican, or $3.44, gold, per year, and when we asked how it could be worth a woman’s while to work a whole year for so small a sum, his reply was, “If she did not do this she would earn nothing, and this would keep her in clothes and a little more.” A cotton spinner in his church would procure a pound of cotton and on returning the yarn would receive one and a quarter pounds of cotton in exchange, the quarter pound being her compensation.
埃文斯博士还描述了一种在中国各地普遍使用的从树上拔取插枝的方法。将树枝的背面切开，向上弯曲，然后劈开一小段；在小段周围填入一团湿润的泥土，并用稻草包裹，以保持土壤湿润，并方便日后浇水；之后，可以用竹条捆扎，以增强稳定性。新桑园的插枝就是通过这种方式获得的。
Dr. Evans also described a method of rooting slips from trees, practiced in various parts of China. The under side of a branch is cut, bent upward and split for a short distance; about this is packed a ball of moistened earth wrapped in straw to retain the soil and to provide for future watering; the whole may then be bound with strips of bamboo for greater stability. In this way slips for new mulberry orchards are procured.
早上八点钟，我们进入了白河河口，向西蜿蜒穿过一片广阔的、几乎与海平面齐平的沙漠平原。在两个方向，远处的地平线上，大沽政府盐田的表面点缀着巨大的白色盐堆，大量的水平风车在风中旋转，将海水泵入面积巨大的蒸发池。在图196中可以看到五个大型盐堆和六座风车，以及许多较小的盐堆。图197是蒸发池的近视图，母液排干后，盐堆从蒸发池表面刮下。风车驱动着一台，有时两台大型木链泵，直径约9米，将盐水从潮水池中提升到第二台和第三台更高的水位，在那里进行第二次也是最后一次浓缩。这些风车在图198中看起来很粗糙，但效率很高，制造成本低，易于控制。八个风帆，每个6英尺乘10英尺，悬挂的方式使得整个旋转过程都能承受风力，当边缘越过临界点时，风帆会自动倾斜，从另一面接收风力。因此，大约480英尺的风帆表面迎风展开，半径为15英尺。水平驱动轮直径十英尺，装有八十八个木制齿轮，与一个十五叶小齿轮啮合。驱动链条的轴的另一端，卷轴上有九个臂，用于驱动链条。链泵的板子或桶子尺寸为六英寸乘十二英寸，间距九英寸，只要微风吹拂，泵就能满转。
At eight o’clock in the morning we entered the mouth of the Pei ho and wound westward through a vast, nearly sea-level, desert plain and in both directions, far toward the horizon, huge white stacks of salt dotted the surface of the Taku Government salt fields, and revolving in the wind were great numbers of horizontal sail windmills, pumping sea water into an enormous acreage of evaporation basins. In Fig. 196 may be seen five of the large salt stacks and six of the windmills, together with many smaller piles of salt. Fig. 197 is a closer view of the evaporation basins with piles of salt scraped from the surface after the mother liquor had been drained away. The windmills, which were working one, sometimes two, of the large wooden chain pumps, were some thirty feet in diameter and lifted the brine from tide-water basins into those of a second and third higher level where the second and final concentration occurred. These windmills, crude as they appear in Fig. 198, are nevertheless efficient, cheaply constructed and easily controlled. The eight sails, each six by ten feet, were so hung as to take the wind through the entire revolution, tilting automatically to receive the wind on the opposite face the moment the edge passed the critical point. Some 480 feet of sail surface were thus spread to the wind, working on a radius of fifteen feet. The horizontal drive wheel had a diameter of ten feet, carried eighty-eight wooden cogs which engaged a pinion with fifteen leaves, and there were nine arms on the reel at the other end of the shaft which drove the chain. The boards or buckets of the chain pump were six by twelve inches, placed nine inches apart, and with a fair breeze the pump ran full.
图 196、直隶北河口大沽蒸发场的盐堆和风帆车。
Fig. 196.—Salt stacks and sail windmills on the Taku evaporation fields at the mouth of the Pei ho, Chihli.
如此，大量的盐就被廉价地利用风能、潮汐能和太阳能，由最廉价的人力驱动生产出来。抵达天津之前，我们经过政府盐场，清点了两百堆露天盐堆，开始清点之前，我们已经走过了盐场的三分之一以上。每堆盐的平均容量肯定超过3000立方英尺，盐场里储存的盐量肯定超过4000万磅。身着军装的武装警卫日夜在巷道里巡逻。铺在盐堆上的长条草席是唯一的避雨处。
Enormous quantities of salt are thus cheaply manufactured through wind, tide and sun power directed by the cheapest human labor. Before reaching Tientsin we passed the Government storage yards and counted two hundred stacks of salt piled in the open, and more than a third of the yard had been passed before beginning the count. The average content of each stack must have exceeded 3000 cubic feet of salt, and more than 40,000,000 pounds must have been stored in the yards. Armed guards in military uniform patrolled the alleyways day and night. Long strips of matting laid over the stacks were the only shelter against rain.
图 197. 蒸发盆的近景，其中堆满了准备从田地中运走的盐。
Fig. 197.—Near view of evaporating basins with piles of salt ready to be removed from the fields.
中国沿海地区，北至山海关，南至广州，在适宜的地方，人们都利用海水制盐。据总领事何西的报告，四川省的盐产量不少于30万吨。每年都会在那里生产，主要采用动物动力从七百到两千多英尺深的井中抽取的盐水。
Throughout the length of China’s seacoast, from as far north as beyond Shanhaikwan, south to Canton, salt is manufactured from sea water in suitable places. In Szechwan province, we learn from the report of Consul-General Hosie, that not less than 300,000 tons of salt are annually manufactured there, largely from brine raised by animal power from wells seven hundred to more than two thousand feet deep.
霍西描述了在策利乌辛格一口深达两千多英尺的井里进行提水的情景。在一座容纳四十头水牛的发电站地下室里，安放着一个十二英尺高、周长六十英尺的巨大竹鼓，它被安置在一根垂直轴上旋转，由四头牛拉动鼓的圆周来推动。一根麻绳缠绕在鼓上，离地面六英尺高，从井边的滑轮下方穿过，然后向上绕过一个安装在六十英尺高处的轮子，下降到一个由直径四英寸、近六十英尺长的竹杆制成的桶里，桶下落时，绳子松开后，水桶以极快的速度沉入井底。水桶沉到井底后，四名工人每人牵着一头水牛，将水牛拴在桶上，以奔跑的速度拉动，持续十五分钟，直到水桶被打捞出井。之后，工人解开水牛的拴绳，在水桶被清空并再次沉入井底的同时，又有另一头水牛被拉到桶上接力。就这样，工作日夜不停地进行。
Hosie describes the operations at a well more than two thousand feet deep, at Tzeliutsing. In the basement of a power-house which sheltered forty water buffaloes, a huge bamboo drum twelve feet high, sixty feet in circumference, was so set as to revolve on a vertical axis propelled by four cattle drawing from its circumference. A hemp rope was wound about this drum, six feet from the ground, passing out and under a pulley at the well, then up and around a wheel mounted sixty feet above and descended to the bucket made from bamboo stems four inches in diameter and nearly sixty feet long, which dropped with great speed to the bottom of the well as the rope unwound. When the bucket reached the bottom four attendants, each with a buffalo in readiness, hitched to the drum and drove at a running pace, during fifteen minutes, or until the bucket was raised from the well. The buffalo were then unhitched and, while the bucket was being emptied and again dropped to the bottom of the well, a fresh relay were brought to the drum. In this way the work continued night and day.
图 198。中国直隶大沽盐场用于抽取盐水的风车。
Fig. 198.—Sail windmill used in pumping brine at the Taku Government salt works, Chihli, China.
盐水从井中抽出后，被倒入分配水箱，然后通过竹管流到蒸发棚，蒸发棚里放置着圆底、直径四英尺的浅铁锅，锅内有燃烧的天然气。
The brine, after being raised from the well, was emptied into distributing reservoirs, flowing thence through bamboo pipes to the evaporating sheds where round bottomed, shallow iron kettles four feet across were set in brick arches in which jets of natural gas were burning.
在约六十平方英里的范围内，分布着一千多口盐水井和二十口用于提取燃料气体的火井。火井口用砖石封闭，涂有石灰的竹管从火井口通向各个熔炉，熔炉的末端是位于锅底的铁制燃烧器。值得注意的是，在策留辛格城，早在公元前，这些盐水井和火井就已用于制盐。
Within an area some sixty miles square there are more than a thousand brine and twenty fire wells from which fuel gas is taken. The mouths of the fire wells are closed with masonry, out from which bamboo conduits coated with lime lead to the various furnaces, terminating with iron burners beneath the kettles. Remarkable is the fact that in the city of Tzeliutsing, both these brine and the fire wells have been operated in the manufacture of salt since before Christ was born.
四十头水牛每头价值30至40美元，其饲料价格为每天15至20美分。这种盐的制造成本定为每斤13至14钱，政府在此基础上加收9钱的税，使工厂成本为每百磅82美分至1.15美元。盐业为政府垄断，产品必须出售给政府官员或购买了特定地区独家供应权的商人。条约禁止进口盐。为征收盐税，中国被划分为11个省，每个省都有自己的供应源，禁止将盐从一个省转移到另一个省。
The forty water buffalo are worth $30 to $40 per head and their food fifteen to twenty cents per day. The cost of manufacturing this salt is placed at thirteen to fourteen cash per catty, to which the Government adds a tax of nine cash more, making the cost at the factory from 82 cents to $1.15, gold, per hundred pounds. Salt manufacture is a Government monopoly and the product must be sold either to Government officials or to merchants who have bought the exclusive right to supply certain districts. The importation of salt is prohibited by treaties. For the salt tax collection China is divided into eleven circuits each having its own source of supply and transfer of salt from one circuit to another is forbidden.
据说，盐的正常价格在每斤一文钱半到四文钱之间。盐的零售价每磅盐的价格从四分之三到三美分不等，足足是制造成本的十二到十五倍。帝国每年的盐产量约为186万吨，1901年盐税接近一千万美元。
The usual cost of salt is said to vary between one and a half and four cash per catty. The retail price of salt ranges from three-fourths to three cents per pound, fully twelve to fifteen times the cost of manufacture. The annual production of salt in the Empire is some 1,860,000 tons, and in 1901 salt paid a tax close to ten million dollars.
过了盐田，往天津方向，河岸上点缀着几组低矮的、几乎没有窗户的房屋（图199）。这些房屋是用土砖砌成的，侧面和屋顶抹上粘土，为了防雨，房屋里还掺入了谷壳和切碎的稻草。房屋看起来格外清新，我们得知这是最近为即将到来的雨季所做的准备。过了第一座村庄，是一片平原，平原上密密麻麻地散布着无数的坟丘，这一点在前面已经提到过。我们沿着河流逆流而上走了将近一个小时，才看到任何植被，显然土壤盐分过高，不适合植物生长。但在这之后，田野和花园里的庄稼，以及一些果树和其他树木，形成了一片宽窄不一的边缘。沿着河岸。两岸常常有小块的插秧田，土地通常被布置成两层高的畦，经过仔细的平整，水稻种植在较低的区域，人们用手、脚和畜力操作木制链条泵，灌溉水稻和蔬菜作物。
Beyond the salt fields, toward Tientsin, the banks of the river were dotted at short intervals with groups of low, almost windowless houses, Fig. 199, built of earth brick plastered with clay on sides and roof, made more resistant to rain by an admixture of chaff and cut straw, and there was a remarkable freshness of look about them which we learned was the result of recent preparations made for the rainy season about to open. Beyond the first of these villages came a stretch of plain dotted thickly and far with innumerable grave mounds, to which reference has been made. For nearly an hour we had traveled up the river before there was any material vegetation, the soil being too saline apparently to permit growth, but beyond this, crops in the fields and gardens, with some fruit and other trees, formed a fringe of varying width along the banks. Small fields of transplanted rice on both banks were frequent and often the land was laid out in beds of two levels, carefully graded, the rice occupying the lower areas, and wooden chain pumps were being worked by hand, foot and animal power, irrigating both rice and garden crops.
图 199：直隶省北河畔的中国村庄。
Fig. 199.—Chinese village on the bank of the Pei ho, Province of Chihli.
村子里堆满了山东式的土堆；粪堆随处可见，驴子拉着沉重的石磙，后面跟着手持大木槌的男人们，一圈一圈地走着，把干土堆肥和拆下来的炕上的大块土砖碾碎混合，为小麦和大麦收割后即将种植的新一季作物准备肥料。一船船满载着这些准备好的肥料，沿着河流和运河运往田野。
In the villages were many stacks of earth compost, of the Shantung type; manure middens were common and donkeys drawing heavy stone rollers followed by men with large wooden mallets, were going round and round, pulverizing and mixing the dry earth compost and the large earthen brick from dismantled kangs, preparing fertilizer for the new series of crops about to be planted, following the harvest of wheat and barley. Large boat-loads of these prepared fertilizers were moving on the river and up the canals to the fields.
从天津向沿海地区，尤其是在铁路沿线地区，除了短草之外几乎没什么作物。我们访问期间，这些草都被人们放牧，有些地方甚至被割去，只为了获得少量干草。肥沃的耕地主要分布在河流、运河或其他水道沿岸，那里排水良好，灌溉用水充足。江苏和浙江部分地区普遍存在的密集、广泛的水渠系统，在这里却没有，因此土壤肥力较低。更完善的水渠系统、确保充足的排水系统以及对雨季流经这片广阔平原的洪水的全面控制，是中国最重要的工业问题之一。如果妥善解决这些问题，必将极大地增加中国的资源。在我们驾车行驶在古老的北京-大沽路上时，经常可以看到旱季浮到地面的盐渍沉积物，天津市的工程师说，他们在对外国租界进行停车时，发现树木在几年后就死了，因为它们的根开始渗透到地下。盐渍土层更加肥沃，但自从他们开凿运河改善排水系统后，树木就不再枯死。毫无疑问，通过运河进行适当的排水，以及随之而来的灌溉，将使所有这些现在或多或少含盐的土地变得高产，就像现在毗邻现有水道的土地一样。
Toward the coast from Tientsin, especially in the country traversed by the railroad, there was little produced except a short grass, this being grazed at the time of our visit and, in places, cut for a very meagre crop of hay. The productive cultivated lands lie chiefly along the rivers and canals or other water courses, where there is better drainage as well as water for irrigation. The extensive, close canalization that characterizes parts of Kiangsu and Chekiang provinces is lacking here and for this reason, in part, the soil is not so productive. The fuller canalization, the securing of adequate drainage and the gaining of complete control of the flood waters which flow through this vast plain during the rainy season constitute one of China’s most important industrial problems which, when properly solved, must vastly increase her resources. During our drive over the old Peking-Taku road saline deposits were frequently observed which had been brought to the surface during the dry season, and the city engineer of Tientsin stated that in their efforts at parking portions of the foreign concessions they had found the trees dying after a few years when their roots began to penetrate the more saline subsoil, but that since they had opened canals, improving the drainage, trees were no longer dying. There is little doubt that proper drainage by means of canals, and the irrigation which would go with it, would make all of these lands, now more or less saline, highly productive, as are now those contiguous to the existing water courses.
图 200. 中国的浅耕法，通过土覆盖来保持土壤水分。
Fig. 200.—China’s method of shallow cultivation, producing an earth mulch to conserve soil moisture.
我们驱车经过大沽路前两天刚下过雨。我们申请用车时，路主怀疑道路是否通行，因为他不得不派出一队马车去帮忙送回前一天晚上抛锚的马车。最终，他们安排派一匹马和我们一起去。雨季刚刚开始，但道路上挖的深沟使积水积聚，大大加剧了道路状况。我们经过的一个小村庄里，狭窄街道中间的路面被挖了三四英尺深的沟，只留下五英尺深的路口供居民通行。在这条战壕里，我们的马车在泥水中行驶，几乎到达了轮毂。
It had rained two days before our drive over the Taku road and when we applied for a conveyance the proprietor doubted whether the roads were passible, as he had been compelled to send out an extra team to assist in the return of one which had been stalled during the previous night. It was finally arranged to send an extra horse with us. The rainy season had just begun but the deep trenching of the roads concentrates the water in them and greatly intensifies the trouble. In one of the little hamlets through which we passed the roadway was trenched to a depth of three to four feet in the middle of the narrow street, leaving only five feet for passing in front of the dwellings on either side, and in this trench our carriage moved through mud and water nearly to the hubs.
在天津和北京之间，前一晚雨后的清晨，我们看到许多农民用宽大的锄头耕田，尽可能多地覆盖一层土壤，以保持急需的水分。如图200和图201所示，人们正在耕作，他们使用长柄锄头，锄头的刃长9英寸，宽13英寸，悬挂在地表下，耕作效率极高，能够迅速覆盖地面。
Between Tientsin and Peking, in the early morning after a rain of the night before, we saw many farmers working their fields with the broad hoes, developing an earth mulch at the first possible moment to conserve their much needed moisture. Men were at work, as seen in Figs. 200 and 201, using long handled hoes, with blades nine by thirteen inches, hung so as to draw just under the surface, doing very effective work, permitting them to cover the ground rapidly.
图 201——用于浅耕以形成覆盖土层的锄头。锄刃长 13 英寸，宽 9 英寸。
Fig. 201.—Hoe used for shallow cultivation in developing an earth mulch. The blade is 13 inches long and 9 inches wide.
继续往前走，我们碰到了六位在麦田里捡拾过早成熟、散落在即将被收割的麦穗的妇女。我们不知道她们这样做是出于荣幸还是出于任务；她们身材魁梧，精神饱满，衣着得体，几乎过了中年，时间也快到中午了，但她们中却没有一个人捡到。她手里抓不住那么多麦秆。直隶和山东一样，当时正值异常干旱，导致作物减产，人们或许也过着异常节俭的生活；但这些人在节俭方面或许比在生产方面更胜一筹。如果把麦穗留在地里，就会浪费掉。如果这些妇女能成为田间拾穗的特权，她们的收获肯定比我们在法国看到的那些从已收割的田里捡拾麦穗的老妇人要多得多。
Walking further, we came upon six women in a field of wheat, gleaning the single heads which had prematurely ripened and broken over upon the ground between the rows soon to be harvested. Whether they were doing this as a privilege or as a task we do not know; they were strong, cheerful, reasonably dressed, hardly past middle life and it was nearly noon, yet not one of them had collected more straws than she could readily grasp in one hand. The season in Chihli as in Shantung, had been one of unusual drought, making the crop short and perhaps unusual frugality was being practiced; but it is in saving that these people excel perhaps more than in producing. These heads of wheat, if left upon the ground, would be wasted and if the women were privileged gleaners in the fields their returns were certainly much greater than were those of the very old women we have seen in France gathering heads of wheat from the already harvested fields.
图202——收割小麦，用拉力捆扎成捆。最常见的农耕队由一头小驴和一头中型牛组成。中国天津。
Fig. 202.—Gathering wheat, harvested by being pulled and tied in bundles. Team consists of a small donkey and a medium sized cow, which constitute the most common farm team. Tientsin, China.
在天津和北京之间的田野里，所有的小麦都被拔掉了。麦子被连根拔起，捆成小捆，运到住处。有时，麦子会被放在沉重的马车上，马车由一头小驴和一头牛组成，一前一后地拉着，如图202所示。这片田地里的麦田里已经种上了小米，而且已经发芽了。小麦拔掉后，土地会被施肥，然后种植大豆。由于正值旱季，这位农民估计每英亩的产量只有8到9蒲式耳。他预计在同一块田地里，每英亩收获十三到十四蒲式耳的小米和十到十二蒲式耳的大豆。根据当地价格，小麦每英亩可获得10.36美元（黄金）、大豆每英亩可获得6美元（黄金）、小米每英亩可获得5.48美元（黄金）。这块土地归皇帝家族所有，租金为每英亩1.55美元（黄金）。土壤是轻质沙壤土，本身并不肥沃，每英亩施用的肥料价值3.61美元（黄金），每英亩可获得16.71美元（黄金）。
In the fields between Tientsin and Peking all wheat was being pulled, the earth shaken from the roots, tied in small bundles and taken to the dwellings, sometimes on the heavy cart drawn by a team consisting of a small donkey and cow hitched tandem, as seen in Fig. 202. Millet had been planted between the rows of wheat in this field and was already up. When the wheat was removed the ground would be fertilized and planted to soy beans. Because of the dry season this farmer estimated his yield would be but eight to nine bushels per acre. He was expecting to harvest thirteen to fourteen bushels of millet and from ten to twelve bushels of soy beans per acre from the same field. This would give him an earning, based on the local prices, of $10.36, gold, for the wheat; $6.00 for the beans, and $5.48 per acre for the millet. This land was owned by the family of the Emperor and was rented at $1.55, gold, per acre. The soil was a rather light sandy loam, not inherently fertile, and fertilizers to the value of $3.61 gold, per acre, had been applied, leaving the earning $16.71 per acre.
我们采访的另一位农民正在收割小麦，之后会交替种植小米和大豆。他的小麦预计每英亩产量为11至12蒲式耳，大豆为21蒲式耳，小米为25蒲式耳，按照当地谷物和稻草的价格计算，每英亩总收入将达到35美元（约合人民币20元）。
Another farmer with whom we talked, pulling his crop of wheat, would follow this with millet and soy beans in alternate rows. His yield of wheat was expected to be eleven to twelve bushels per acre, his beans twenty-one bushels and his millet twenty-five bushels which, at the local prices for grain and straw, would bring a gross earning of $35, gold, per acre.
在我们穿过田野，前往下一站的路上，我们又遇到了许多为了获得一点点的收成而甘愿劳作的例子。这片田地毗邻一道防风篱笆，树木的根系蔓延很远，消耗着水分和养分，威胁着他的作物。为了防止水分流失，农民挖了一条沟，深约二十英寸，与田地齐长，距离树木约二十英尺，以此切断所有地表根系，防止它们侵蚀土壤。沟渠敞开着，一个有趣的现象是，沟渠田地一侧几乎每根被切断的根系都长出了一根或几根带叶的嫩芽，而仍然与树木相连的根系则没有长叶的迹象。
Before reaching the end of our walk through the fields toward the next station we came across another of the many instances of the labor these people are willing to perform for only a small possible increase in crop. The field was adjacent to one of the windbreak hedges and the trees had spread their roots far afield and were threatening his crop through the consumption of moisture and plant food. To check this depletion the farmer had dug a trench twenty inches deep the length of his field, and some twenty feet from the line of trees, thereby cutting all of the surface roots to stop their draft on the soil. The trench was left open and an interesting feature observed was that nearly every cut root on the field side of the trench had thrown up one or more shoots bearing leaves, while the ends still connected with the trees showed no signs of leaf growth.
直隶和其他地方一样，中国人都是技艺精湛的园丁，只要条件允许，他们就会用水灌溉。一位园丁种了一茬早熟卷心菜，接着又种了一茬瓜，同一季又种了一茬萝卜。他每英亩支付6.45美元（黄金）的租金；三种作物每英亩施肥成本近8美元，每英亩现金支出29.67美元。他的卷心菜作物售价103美元（黄金）；甜瓜售价77美元，萝卜售价51美元多一点，每英亩总价232.20美元，净值为202.53美元。
In Chihli as elsewhere the Chinese are skilled gardeners, using water for irrigation whenever it is advantageous. One gardener was growing a crop of early cabbage, followed by one of melons, and these with radish the same season. He was paying a rent of $6.45, gold, per acre; was applying fertilizer at a cost of nearly $8 per acre for each of the three crops, making his cash outlay $29.67 per acre. His crop of cabbage sold for $103, gold; his melons for $77, and his radish for something more than $51, making a total of $232.20 per acre, leaving him a net value of $202.53.
第二个园丁种植土豆，新土豆出售时每英亩产量为8000磅；成熟土豆出售时每英亩产量为16000磅。新土豆售价为每英亩51.60美元，成熟土豆售价为每英亩185.76美元，同一季两种作物的总收入为237.36美元。这些园丁很早就播种了第一批作物，确保同一季能收获两批作物，最北的种植地在俄亥俄州哥伦布市和伊利诺伊州斯普林菲尔德，第一批作物在块茎长到核桃大小时即可收获。在这种情况下，租金和肥料总计每英亩30.96美元。
A second gardener, growing potatoes, obtained a yield, when sold new, of 8,000 pounds per acre; and of 16,000 pounds when the crop was permitted to mature. The new potatoes were sold so as to bring $51.60 and the mature potatoes $185.76 per acre, making the earning for the two crops the same season a total of $237.36, gold. By planting the first crop very early these gardeners secure two crops the same season, as far north as Columbus, Ohio, and Springfield, Illinois, the first crop being harvested when the tubers are about the size of walnuts. The rental and fertilizers in this case amounted to $30.96 per acre.
还有一位园丁，先种冬小麦，然后种洋葱，最后种卷心菜，两种作物都进行了移植，这三种作物每英亩的总收入为 176.73 美元（黄金），每英亩的肥料和租金支出为 31.73 美元，每英亩的净收入为 145 美元。
Still another gardener growing winter wheat followed by onions, and these by cabbage, both transplanted, realized from the three crops a gross earning of $176.73, gold, per acre, and incurred an expense of $31.73 per acre for fertilizer and rent, leaving him a net earning of $145 per acre.
这些老人掌握了储存和保鲜梨、葡萄等易腐水果的技能和方法，使他们能够几乎持续不断地将这些水果供应市场。梨在六月底非常常见，威廉姆斯总领事告诉我，葡萄通常会运到七月。在与我的翻译交谈时，我了解到，种植者仅仅依靠能够保持非常均匀温度的干土窖，并将果实单独用纸包裹。我们交谈过的外国人中，没有一个了解他们的方法。
These old people have acquired the skill and practice of storing and preserving such perishable fruits as pears and grapes so as to enable them to keep them on the markets almost continuously. Pears were very common in the latter part of June, and Consul-General Williams informed me that grapes are regularly carried into July. In talking with my interpreter as to the methods employed I could only learn that the growers depend simply upon dry earth cellars which can be maintained at a very uniform temperature, the separate fruits being wrapped in paper. No foreigner with whom we talked knew their methods.
蔬菜被放置在如图 161页图 88所示的地窖中过冬，装满蔬菜后，地窖会被覆盖。
Vegetables are carried through the winter in such earth cellars as are seen in Fig. 88, page 161, these being covered after they are filled.
关于中国这一地区的劳动力价格，我们从威廉姆斯总领事处了解到，一名技工师傅每天可以挣到50美分墨西哥币，一名熟练工每天可以挣到18美分，也就是21.5美分和7.75美分黄金。农场工人每年可以挣到20到30美元墨西哥币，或者8.60到12.90美元黄金，加上食物、燃料和礼物，总计17.20到21.50美元。这比我们一个月可能效率更低的劳动力的工资还低。中国的童工相对较少，考虑到成年劳动力如此充足且廉价，这或许是意料之中的事。
As to the price of labor in this part of China, we learned through Consul-General Williams that a master mechanic may receive 50 cents, Mexican, per day, and a journeyman 18 cents, or at a rate of 21.5 cents and 7.75 cents, gold. Farm laborers receive from $20 to $30, Mexican, or $8.60 to $12.90, gold, per year, with food, fuel and presents which make a total of $17.20 to $21.50. This is less for the year than we pay for a month of probably less efficient labor. There is relatively little child labor in China and this perhaps should be expected when adult labor is so abundant and so cheap.
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北纬39度线位于天津正南；向西，它穿过意大利“靴子”的脚趾，经过葡萄牙的里斯本，靠近华盛顿和圣路易斯，到达太平洋沿岸的萨克拉门托以北。我们即将离开的国家，七月平均气温为80华氏度，一月平均气温为21华氏度，但这里可能会结两英尺厚的冰；十八年来平均最高气温为103.5华氏度，平均最低气温为4.5华氏度；在此期间，气温计两次记录到零上113华氏度，两次记录到零下7华氏度，然而这里靠近海岸，纬度与华盛顿州相同；年平均降雨量为19.72英寸，六月、七月、八月和九月的降雨量仅为3.37英寸。 6月17日凌晨5点40分，我们乘坐清晨5点40分的清晨开往华北的列车，北上抵达芝加哥——满洲的奉天。火车行程约四百英里，但一路仍然要穿越中国辽阔的沿海平原向北延伸。向南，从地球上最冷的地方出发，那里一月的平均气温超过零下40°F（摄氏零下40度），北风吹拂着奉天，一月的平均气温仅比零上3°F（摄氏零下3度）。然而，那里七月份的平均气温却高达77°F（摄氏23度），年平均降雨量只有18.5英寸（摄氏46.5厘米），主要集中在夏季，就像天津一样。
The 39th parallel of latitude lies just south of Tientsin; followed westward, it crosses the toe of Italy’s boot, leads past Lisbon in Portugal, near Washington and St. Louis and to the north of Sacramento on the Pacific. We were leaving a country with a mean July temperature of 80° F., and of 21° in January, but where two feet of ice may form; a country where the eighteen year mean maximum temperature is 103.5° and the mean minimum 4.5°; where twice in this period the thermometer recorded 113° above zero, and twice 7° below, and yet near the coast and in the latitude of Washington; a country where the mean annual rainfall is 19.72 inches and all but 3.37 inches falls in June, July, August and September. We had taken the 5:40 A. M. Imperial North-China train, June 17th, to go as far northward as Chicago,—to Mukden in Manchuria, a distance by rail of some four hundred miles, but all of the way still across the northward extension of the great Chinese coastal plain. Southward, out from the coldest quarter of the globe, where the mean January temperature is more than 40° below zero, sweep northerly winds which bring to Mukden a mean January temperature only 3° above zero, and yet there the July temperature averages as high as 77° and there is a mean annual rainfall of but 18.5 inches, coming mostly in the summer, as at Tientsin.
中国沿海平原北部延伸带降水量虽小，但降水效率相对较高。由于其分布最为适宜且夏季气温较高，降雨量较高。在作物早期生长季（四月、五月和六月），降雨量为4.18英寸；但在作物生长高峰期（七月和八月），降雨量为11.4英寸；在作物成熟期（九月和十月），降雨量为3.08英寸，而一年中其他时间的降雨量仅为1.06英寸。因此，大部分降雨发生在作物每日需水量最大的时期，而降雨量最少的时期是在冬季中旬，也就是作物生长缓慢的时期。
Although the rainfall of the northern extension of China’s coastal plain is small, its efficiency is relatively high because of its most favorable distribution and the high summer temperatures. In the period of early growth, April, May and June, there are 4.18 inches; but in the period of maximum growth, July and August, the rainfall is 11.4 inches; and in the ripening period, September and October, it is 3.08 inches, while during the rest of the year but 1.06 inch falls. Thus most of the rain comes at the time when the crops require the greatest daily consumption and it is least in mid-winter, during the period of little growth.
火车离开天津后，我们长途跋涉，穿过一片农业贫瘠、耕地稀少的地区。地势平坦，土壤明显盐碱化，土地极需排水。有水渠的地方，庄稼长势最好，水渠沿岸几乎连成一片。天气闷热，但工人们正忙着用大锄头耕作，常常脱光衣服，只穿着一件短衬衣或一条宽松的裤子。
As our train left Tientsin we traveled for a long distance through a country agriculturally poor and little tilled, with surface flat, the soil apparently saline, and the land greatly in need of drainage. Wherever there were canals the crops were best, apparently occupying more or less continuous areas along either bank. The day was hot and sultry but laborers were busy with their large hoes, often with all garments laid aside except a short shirt or a pair of roomy trousers.
在塘沽村附近的盐场区，有巨大的盐堆和尚未集中起来的小盐堆，还有众多的风车，构成了这片风景中最引人注目的特征，但几乎没有农作物或其他植被。在北塘之外，还有其他盐场，一条运河向西通往天津，盐很可能就是通过这条运河运到那里的。在汉沽附近，仍然可以看到其他的盐堆和风车，那里有另一条运河通往北京。在这里，海岸线从铁路向东延伸，在城市边界之外，许多坟丘散布在周围的平原上，那里有成群的羊群在吃草。
In the salt district about the village of Tangku there were huge stacks of salt and smaller piles not yet brought together, with numerous windmills, constituting most striking features in the landscape, but there was almost no agricultural or other vegetation. Beyond Pehtang there are other salt works and a canal leads westward to Tientsin, on which the salt is probably taken thither, and still other salt stacks and windmills continued visible until near Hanku, where another canal leads toward Peking. Here the coast recedes eastward from the railway and beyond the city limits many grave mounds dot the surrounding plains where herds of sheep were grazing.
我们匆匆驶向滦河三角洲地区，在抵达唐山之前，我们穿过了一片更加富饶的土地。茂盛的树木使景色更加翠绿，小米、高粱和小麦的田野沿着道路绵延数英里，延伸到视野尽头的平原。接下来是一片片种植着……两行玉米和一行大豆交替种植，但间隔不超过28英寸，每隔16到18英寸种植一株玉米，所有作物都经过仔细锄地，没有杂草，并覆盖着优质的土壤覆盖物；但玉米叶在烈日下仍然卷曲。唐山是一座大城市，显然是近年来沿着铁路发展起来的，而在这个国家，孤立的锥形山丘从平原上拔地而起，高达100或200英尺。这里，一车车细碎的泥土堆肥被运往田间，堆成500到800磅的单堆，间隔40到60英尺。在开平，地势略显起伏，我们穿过了第一道深6到8英尺的铁路堑壕，溪水在田地表面以下10到12英尺流淌。库耶的右侧和远处是低矮的山丘，我们经过这里，看到田野上狭小的未耕地上，散落着大量干燥的细粉状土堆肥。我们无法判断这片土地上本季种植的作物（如果真有的话）。这里的施肥比我们在山东省发现的更为广泛和普遍，有些地方甚至用桶把水运到田里，用于种植或移栽，以确保新作物能够利用第一场雨水。
As we hurried toward the delta region of the Lwan ho, and before reaching Tangshan, a more productive country was traversed. Thrifty trees made the landscape green, and fields of millet, kaoliang and wheat stretched for miles together along the track and back over the flat plain beyond the limit of vision. Then came fields planted with two rows of maize alternating with one row of soy beans, but not over twenty-eight inches apart, one stalk of corn in a place every sixteen to eighteen inches, all carefully hoed, weedless and blanketed with an excellent earth mulch; but still the leaves were curling in the intense heat of the sun. Tangshan is a large city, apparently of recent growth on the railroad in a country where isolated conical hills rise one hundred or two hundred feet out of the flat plains. Cart loads of finely pulverized earth compost were here moving to the fields in large numbers, being laid in single piles of five hundred to eight hundred pounds, forty to sixty feet apart. At Kaiping the country grows a little rolling and we passed through the first railway cuts, six to eight feet deep, and the water in the streams is running ten to twelve feet below the surface of the fields. On the right and beyond Kuyeh there are low hills, and here we passed enormous quantities of dry, finely powdered earth compost, distributed on narrow unplanted area over the fields. What crop, if indeed any, had occupied these areas this season, we could not judge. The fertilization here is even more extensive and more general than we found it in the Shantung province, and in places water was being carried in pails to the fields for use either in planting or in transplanting, to ensure the readiness of the new crops to utilize the first rainfall when it comes.
然后，我们穿过一条约三百英尺宽、几近干涸的河床，河床之后是一片沙质平原，田地狭长，两旁是防风篱笆。庄稼虽然不大，但显然由于这片庇护所的作用而长势良好。有些地方的沙子已经漫入篱笆，高达三英尺。在抵达沈阳之前，沿途还经过许多类似的保护区，这些保护区通常位于宽阔、如今已近乎干涸的河道北侧。
Then the bed of a nearly dry stream some three hundred feet wide was crossed and beyond it a sandy plain was planted in long narrow fields between windbreak hedges. The crops were small but evidently improved by the influence of the shelter. The sand in places had drifted into the hedges to a hight of three feet. At a number of other places along the way before Mukden was reached such protected areas were passed and oftenest on the north side of wide, now nearly dry, stream channels.
当我们向山海关前进时，我们经过了更加平坦、畅通无阻的广阔平原比中西部玉米种植带的任何地区都更茂盛，这里也种植着玉米、高粱、小麦和豆类，低矮的房屋掩映在远处散落的树丛中，点缀着两旁广阔的平原，没有篱笆，也看不到任何道路的痕迹。我们仿佛置身于一片广阔的田野中，田野里点缀着数百名忙碌的男子，偶尔有一位农夫，还有一辆大车在田野里茫然地迷失，直到看不到任何道路的痕迹。
As we passed on toward Shanhaikwan we were carried over broad plains even more nearly level and unobstructed than any to be found in the corn belt of the middle west, and these too planted with corn, kaoliang, wheat and beans, and with the low houses hidden in distant scattered clusters of trees dotting the wide plain on either side, with not a fence, and nothing to suggest a road anywhere in sight. We seemed to be moving through one vast field dotted with hundreds of busy men, a plowman here, and there a great cart hopelessly lost in the field so far as one could see any sign of road to guide their course.
图 203——满洲大豆出口。直隶滦州。
Fig. 203.—Exportation of soy beans from Manchuria. Lwanchow, Chihli.
一些早期作物似乎从与地面作物交替的区域收获，这些区域点缀着土壤和粪肥堆，总计数百吨，分布在田野上，但毫无疑问，在接下来的三四天里，这数千堆土壤和粪肥将被埋入土壤中并消失在视野中，在另一茬作物和一年之后重新出现。
Some early crop appeared to have been harvested from areas alternating with those on the ground, and these were dotted with piles of the soil and manure compost, aggregating hundreds of tons, distributed over the fields but no doubt during the next three or four days these thousands of piles would have been worked into the soil and vanished from sight, to reappear after another crop and another year.
正是在 Lwanchow，我们遇到了运往日本和欧洲的大豆大潮，这些大豆从周边国家涌入，装在麻袋里，用大骡子拉的沉重的车运来，如图 203所示，大量的大豆被堆放在露天沿着铁轨，没有任何遮蔽，等待火车的到来，将他们运送到出口港口。
It was at Lwanchow that we met the out-going tide of soy beans destined for Japan and Europe, pouring in from the surrounding country in gunny sacks brought on heavy carts drawn by large mules, as seen in Fig. 203, and enormous quantities had been stacked in the open along the tracks, with no shelter whatever, awaiting the arrival of trains to move them to export harbors.
这里的种植方式与其他地方一样，都是成排种植，但并非单一品种。最常见的是两排玉米、高粱或小米与大豆交替种植，行距通常不超过28英寸，通常采用高垄耕作。这种种植方式既能保证田间种植更多作物，又能获得充足的阳光；还能确保固氮大豆的根系在每个季节都能持续分布在整个田地的土壤中，使根系能够更持续、更充分地为土壤供能。在玉米或小米田地过于空旷的地方，空隙会被大豆填补。这种种植方式可能能够更快速地利用根瘤从土壤空气中收集的氮，因为根瘤在作物还在地上时，同一季节就会死亡并经历硝化作用，而磷和钾化合物在腐烂过程中释放出来，这些化合物也会被作物吸收利用。
The planting here, as elsewhere, is in rows, but not of one kind of grain. Most frequently two rows of maize, kaoliang or millet alternated with the soy beans and usually not more than twenty-eight inches apart, sharp high ridge cultivation being the general practice. Such planting secures the requisite sunshine with a larger number of plants on the field; it secures a continuous general distribution of the roots of the nitrogen-fixing soy beans in the soil of all the field every season, and permits the soil to be more continuously and more completely laid under tribute by the root systems. In places where the stand of corn or millet was too open the gaps were filled with the soy beans. Such a system of planting possibly permits a more immediate utilization of the nitrogen gathered from the soil air in the root nodules, as these die and undergo nitrification during the same season, while the crops are yet on the ground, and so far as phosphorus and potassium compounds are liberated by this decay, they too would become available to the crops.
当天旅程的终点是直隶和满洲边界的山海关，火车于下午6点20分停靠过夜。清晨，我们从一家日本客栈二楼的房间踏上阳台，眼前便是长城的东端，阴沉灰暗，它向西蜿蜒1500英里，横跨20个经度，历经21个世纪，是人类构想、一个国家建造的最宏伟的建筑。长城底部厚20多英尺，顶部厚12英尺；高出地面15至30英尺，两侧都有护墙，每隔200码就有一个20英尺高的塔楼。在当时的战争方式下，当成千上万的士兵保卫它时，它一定是最勇敢、最有效的国家防御工事。迄今为止建造的防御工事。其建造和维护的经济性也无与伦比。
The end of the day’s journey was at Shanhaikwan on the boundary between Chihli and Manchuria, the train stopping at 6:20 P. M. for the night. Stepping upon the veranda from our room on the second floor of a Japanese inn in the early morning, there stood before us, sullen and grey, the eastern terminus of the Great Wall, winding fifteen hundred miles westward across twenty degrees of longitude, having endured through twenty-one centuries, the most stupendous piece of construction ever conceived by man and executed by a nation. More than twenty feet thick at the base and than twelve feet on the top; rising fifteen to thirty feet above the ground with parapets along both faces and towers every two hundred yards rising twenty feet higher, it must have been, for its time and the methods of warfare then practiced, when defended by their thousands, the boldest and most efficient national defense ever constructed. Nor in the economy of construction and maintenance has it ever been equalled.
即使真的有两万名石匠辛苦劳作十年建成这座城池，有四十万士兵保卫，有两万多名军需人员供养，还有三万名运输、采石和制陶工人供养，那么以当时六千万人口为基础，欧洲现在动用的总人口还不到十分之八；而根据埃德蒙·泰里的估计，今天欧洲和平时期的官兵只占四亿人口的百分之一，这些人每天仅需花费一美元用于食物、衣服和生产能力的损失，十年后，欧洲各国将损失一百四十多亿美元。中国以当时的风俗习惯，每天仅需30美分，十年总成本仅为5.2亿美元，就能轻松维持47万大军。1900年，法国内阁批准了一项海军计划，计划在未来十年内耗资6亿美元，相当于共和国境内每个男女老少都要缴纳超过15美元的税款。
Even if it be true that 20,000 masons toiled through ten years in its building, defended by 400,000 soldiers, fed by a commissariat of 20,000 more and supported by 30,000 others in the transport, quarry and potters’ service, she would then have been using less than eight tenths per cent of her population, on a basis of 60,000,000 at the time; while according to Edmond Théry’s estimate, the officers and soldiers of Europe today, in time of peace, constitute one per cent of a population of 400,000,000 of people, and these, at only one dollar each per day for food, clothing and loss of producing power would cost her nations, in ten years, more than $14,000 million. China, with her present habits and customs, would more easily have maintained her army of 470,000 men on thirty cents each per day, or for a total ten-year cost of but $520,000,000. The French cabinet in 1900 approved a naval program involving an expenditure of $600,000,000 during the next ten years, a tax of more than $15 for every man, woman and child in the Republic.
我们清晨5点20分从山海关出发，晚上6点30分抵达沈阳，在东北的田野里骑行了一整天。东北的面积为363,700平方英里，相当于南北达科他州、明尼苏达州、内布拉斯加州和爱荷华州的总和。它的轮廓大致像一只巨大的靴子，如果将它向东滑动，直到旅顺口与华盛顿相接，山海关将落在匹兹堡附近，两者恰好位于靴子的前端。靴子的前端横跨宾夕法尼亚州、纽约州、新泽西州和整个新英格兰地区，延伸至新不伦瑞克省以外，靴子的后端则位于圣劳伦斯湾。哈尔滨位于靴子的前端，位于蒙特利尔以东50英里处，而不断扩张的靴子将向西北延伸至詹姆斯湾，完全位于渥太华河和加拿大太平洋以北，横跨纬度1000英里，经度900英里。
Leaving Shanhaikwan at 5:20 in the morning and reaching Mukden at 6-30 in the evening, we rode the entire day through Manchurian fields. Manchuria has an area of 363,700 square miles, equal to that of both Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska and Iowa combined. It has roughly the outline of a huge boot and could one slide it eastward until Port Arthur was at Washington, Shanhaikwan would fall well toward Pittsburg, both at the tip of the broad toe to the boot. The foot would lie across Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and all of New England, extending beyond New Brunswick with the heel in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Harbin, at the instep of the boot, would lie fifty miles east of Montreal and the expanding leg would reach northwestward nearly to James Bay, entirely to the north of the Ottawa river and the Canadian Pacific, spanning a thousand miles of latitude and nine hundred miles of longitude.
辽河平原宽约三十英里，中部为松花江平原，是满洲最大的平原。它们共同构成了两座平行山脉之间的狭长谷底，从辽湾向东北延伸，介于旅顺口和山海关之间，沿辽河而上，再沿松花江而下，直至黑龙江，绵延八百余英里。这些平原土壤肥沃深厚，满洲的农业正是在这些平原以及其他较小的河床之上发展起来的，耕地面积可能不超过2.5万平方英里，养活了八九百万人口。
The Liao plain, thirty miles wide, and the central Sungari plain, are the largest in Manchuria, forming together a long narrow valley floor between two parallel mountain systems and extending northeasterly from the Liao gulf, between Port Arthur and Shanhaikwan, up the Liao river and down the Sungari to the Amur, a distance of eight hundred or more miles. These plains have a fertile, deep soil and it is on them and other lesser river bottoms that Manchurian agriculture is developed, supporting eight or nine million people on a cultivated acreage possibly not greater than 25,000 square miles.
满洲拥有广阔的森林和牧场，有待未来开发，此外还有丰富的矿产资源。齐齐哈尔位于北达科他州中纬度地区，每年九月和十月蒙古人将牲畜赶到市场上时，这里的人口会从三万激增至七万。在中部省份，位于松花江蒸汽航运的发源地，由于木材丰富且价格低廉，吉林已成为中国帆船的造船中心。松花江（又称牛奶河）是一条大河，洪水季节的河水比其河口上方的阿穆尔河还要多。后者对于吃水十二英尺的蒸汽船可航行450英里，而吃水四英尺的蒸汽船可航行1500英里。因此，在夏季，中部和北部省份拥有天然的内陆水道，但其出海口却位于遥远的北部，一年中有六个月被冰封。
Manchuria has great forest and grazing possibilities awaiting future development, as well as much mineral wealth. The population of Tsitsihar, in the latitude of middle North Dakota, swells from thirty thousand to seventy thousand during September and October, when the Mongols bring in their cattle to market. In the middle province, at the head of steam navigation on the Sungari, because of the abundance and cheapness of lumber, Kirin has become a ship-building center for Chinese junks. The Sungari—Milky—river, is a large stream carrying more water at flood season than the Amur above its mouth, the latter being navigable 450 miles for steamers drawing twelve feet of water, and 1500 miles for those drawing four feet, so that during the summer season the middle and northern provinces have natural inland waterways, but the outlet to the sea is far to the north and closed by ice six months of the year.
在中国长城不远处，它正在迅速衰败，部分原因是由于其材料已不再具有使用价值，被用作建筑材料。穿过它，还有一条宽阔、几乎干涸的河床。那里盛开着一种野白玫瑰，看起来像是之前在苏州以西更南边看到的那种，它开满了簇簇的小白花，与蔓生玫瑰很像。运河岸边生长的这种野玫瑰丛中，有一株已经蔓延开来。一丛树，其中一株高达三十英尺，被一层繁花覆盖，如图204的上半部分所示。图的下半部分是花簇的近景。这株玫瑰的茎高三英尺，周长14.5英寸。如果它能在这个国家茁壮成长，没有什么比它更适合公园和自驾游了。后来，我们在奉天和安东之间的铁路沿线多次看到这种花盛开，但从未在别处见过它如此盛放。花朵直径不足四分之三英寸（约0.75厘米），通常密集地簇生，每簇三到十一朵，有时两朵一朵，偶尔单朵。叶片五叶，有时三叶；小叶宽披针形，渐尖，有细锯齿；刺细小，轮生，数量不多，仅见于较小的枝条上。
Not far beyond the Great Wall of China, fast falling into ruin, partly through the appropriation of its material for building purposes now that it has outlived its usefulness, another broad, nearly dry stream bed was crossed. There, in full bloom, was what appeared to be the wild white rose seen earlier, further south, west of Suchow, having a remarkable profusion of small white bloom in clusters resembling the Rambler rose. One of these bushes growing wild there on the bank of the canal had over-spread a clump of trees one of which was thirty feet in hight, enveloping it in a mantle of bloom, as seen in the upper section of Fig. 204. The lower section of the illustration is a closer view showing the clusters. The stem of this rose, three feet above the ground, measured 14.5 inches in circumference. If it would thrive in this country nothing could be better for parks and pleasure drives. Later on our journey we saw it many times in bloom along the railway between Mukden and Antung, but nowhere attaining so large growth. The blossoms are scant three-fourths inch in diameter, usually in compact clusters of three to eleven, sometimes in twos and occasionally standing singly. The leaves are five-foliate, sometimes trifoliate; leaflets broadly lanceolate, accuminate and finely serrate; thorns minute, recurrent and few, only on the smaller branches.
图 204 野白玫瑰盛开于苏州以西（6 月 2 日）和满洲南部（6 月 18 日）。下图为野白玫瑰的近视图，可见一簇簇的花朵。
Fig. 204.—Wild white rose in bloom west of Suchow, June 2d, and in southern Manchuria, June 18th. Lower section, close view of same, showing clusters.
远处的田野里，一头小驴拉着一个三英尺长、一英尺直径的石磙，一次两头地碾压着狭窄、陡峭、新近形成的田埂。小米、玉米和高粱是这里的主要作物。穿过另一条几乎干涸的小溪，田野变得更加起伏，被深深的沟壑切割开来，除了青岛附近陡峭的山坡外，这是我们在中国第一次见到这样的田地。这里并非所有土地都已耕种，在未耕种的土地上，有五十到一百头山羊、猪、牛、马和驴在吃草。
In a field beyond, a small donkey was drawing a stone roller three feet long and one foot in diameter, firming the crests of narrow, sharp, recently formed ridges, two at a time. Millet, maize and kaoliang were here the chief crops. Another nearly dry stream was crossed, where the fields became more rolling and much cut by deep gulleys, the first instances we had seen in China except on the steep hillsides about Tsingtao. Not all of the lands here were cultivated, and on the untilled areas herds of fifty to a hundred goats, pigs, cattle, horses and donkeys were grazing.
满洲的田地比中国的大，有些田垄足足有四分之一英里长，所以耕作是用驴和牛进行的。大量的工人分成四人、七人、十人、二十人一组，一块田里甚至多达五十人，锄着小米。像上面提到的最大的一组工人，每人每天的工资大概是一毛钱（黄金），他们很可能来自山东人口稠密的地区，春天就离开了，打算九月或十月回来。工人们和役畜都在田里吃午饭。当天早些时候，我们曾多次看到有人用木制雪橇把干草和饲料连同犁和其他工具一起运到田里。中午的时候，这个雪橇就成了牛、骡子或驴的食槽。
Fields in Manchuria are larger than in China and some rows were a full quarter of a mile long, so that cultivation was being done with donkeys and cattle, and large numbers of men were working in gangs of four, seven, ten, twenty, and in one field as high as fifty, hoeing millet. Such a crew as the largest mentioned could probably be hired at ten cents each, gold, per day, and were probably men from the thickly settled portions of Shantung who had left in the spring, expecting to return in September or October. Both laborers and working animals were taking dinner in the fields, and earlier in the day we had seen several instances where hay and feed were being taken to the field on a wooden sled, with the plow and other tools. At noon this was serving as manger for the cattle, mules or donkeys.
在田里进行深沟和垄作时，队伍通常由一头重型牛和两头小驴并排赶着，三头小驴相邻排行走，犁跟在牛后面，或者用一头重骡子代替。
In fields where the close, deep furrowing and ridging was being done the team often consisted of a heavy ox and two small donkeys driven abreast, the three walking in adjacent rows, the plow following the ox, or a heavy mule instead.
雨季尚未到来，许多田地里正在进行播种和移栽，灌溉用水来自不同的山丘，有时用桶从附近的溪流运来，有时则用装有水箱的车。在播种或定植之前，农民们用细锄的铲子沿着田埂的顶部挖出几个坑，然后用勺子往每个山丘里浇少量水。这肯定是农民们愿意额外劳作以节省作物成熟时间的另一种例子，他们帮助那些在雨季到来前无法确定发芽情况的土壤中发芽。
The rainy season had not begun and in many fields there was planting and transplanting where water was used in separate hills, sometimes brought in pails from a nearby stream, and in other cases on carts provided with tanks. Holes were made along the crests of the ridges with the blade of a narrow hoe and a little water poured in each hill, from a dipper, before planting or setting. These must have been other instances where the farmers were willing to incur additional labor to save time for the maturing of the crop by assisting germination in a soil too dry to make it certain until the rains came.
看来，这里广泛采用的坚固垄作和紧密平整的行距在雨水利用方面必定具有显著优势，尤其是早期降雨，以及后期强降雨带来的降雨。陡峭狭窄的垄作，大雨可以立即倾泻到深沟底部，而不会使垄沟过度饱和。同时，沟底湿润的土壤有利于深层渗透，垄沟下方的横向毛细管流强劲，将水分和可溶性养分输送到最充分、最快速的土壤中。当强降雨来临时，每条沟渠都可以充当一个长长的蓄水池，防止冲刷，同时允许雨水快速渗透；垄沟不会积水或积水，使土壤中的空气在沟渠下沉时迅速逸出，而平坦的田地则很难做到这一点，因为雨水会迅速落下，填满所有土壤孔隙，从而堵塞了土壤孔隙，阻止了下方空气的逸出，而水的进入必须先完成。
It appears probable that the strong ridging and the close level rows so largely adopted here must have marked advantages in utilizing the rainfall, especially the portions coming early, and that later also if it should come in heavy showers. With steep narrow ridging, heavy rains would be shed at once to the bottom of the deep furrows without over-saturating the ridges, while the wet soil in the bottom of the furrows would favor deep percolation with lateral capillary flow taking place strongly under the ridges from the furrows, carrying both moisture and soluble plant food where they will be most completely and quickly available. When the rain comes in heavy showers each furrow may serve as a long reservoir which will prevent washing and at the same time permit quick penetration; the ridges never becoming flooded or puddled, permit the soil air to escape readily as the water from the furrows sinks, as it cannot easily do in flat fields when the rains fall rapidly and fill all of the soil pores, thus closing them to the escape of air from below, which must take place before the water can enter.
当行距只有 24 到 28 英寸时，起垄并不会因为增加表面积而导致更多的土壤水分蒸发，从而抵消所获得的其他优势，并且因此，就他们的条件而言，他们的做法似乎是合理的。
When rows are only twenty-four to twenty-eight inches apart, ridging is not sufficiently more wasteful of soil moisture, through greater evaporation because of increased surface, to compensate for the other advantages gained, and hence their practice, for their conditions, appears sound.
离开山海湾后，人们仍然像以前一样，将细磨成粉的泥土堆肥施用于待播种的田地，甚至一些已经播种的田地。在建筑物靠近铁轨、能看见的地方，院子里堆放着堆肥。沿途大约有三分之一的田地尚未播种或刚刚播种，其中绝大多数已经施肥，或者用大型重型车运送，有时由三头骡子拉着。从萨尔霍贡到宁元州，不到半英里路程，我们清点了14块施肥的田地；接下来的1英里路程，我们清点了100块；再接下来的1.25英里路程，我们清点了11块。接下来的2英里路程，我们清点了100块田地。就在到达车站前，我们值班5分钟，清点了95块待播种的田地，这些田地都已经施肥了。在某些情况下，堆肥被铺在去年作物行间的沟里，显然是为了翻耕，从而颠倒了垄的位置。
The application of finely pulverized earth compost to fields to be planted, and in some cases where the fields were already planted, continued general after leaving Shanhailkwan as it had been before. Compost stacks were common in yards wherever buildings were close enough to the track to be seen. Much of the way about one-third of the fields were yet to be, or had just been, planted and in a great majority of these compost fertilizer had been laid down for use on them, or was being taken to them in large heavy carts drawn sometimes by three mules. Between Sarhougon and Ningyuenchow fourteen fields thus fertilized were counted in less than half a mile; ten others in the next mile; eleven in the mile and a quarter following. In the next two miles one hundred fields were counted and just before reaching the station we counted during five minutes, with watch in hand, ninety-five fields to be planted, upon which this fertilizer had been brought. In some cases the compost was being spread in furrows between the rows of a last year’s crop, evidently to be turned under, thus reversing the position of the ridges.
过了连山，铁路就在海边延伸，海湾上出现了一艘船帆，蒸发场周围堆积着许多盐堆，与前面描述过的旋转风车遥相呼应。这里也有大量牛、马、骡子和驴在未耕种的低地上吃草。之后，我们穿过一片田地，那里的田地都种上了作物，没有堆肥，但许多男人正在锄地，有时一队就有二十个人。
After passing Lienshan, where the railway runs near the sea, a sail was visible on the bay and many stacks of salt piled about the evaporation fields were associated with the revolving sail windmills already described. Here, too, large numbers of cattle, horses, mules and donkeys were grazing on the untilled low lands, beyond which we traversed a section where all fields were planted, where no fertilizer was piled in the field but where many groups of men were busy hoeing, sometimes twenty in a gang.
从山海关到奉天，每个火车站都有手持刺刀的中国士兵站岗放哨。从锦州府出发，我们的车厢里坐满了中国官员、宾客和随行人员，其中还包括武装士兵。官员和宾客们都是一群相貌堂堂、举止优雅的男士，他们穿着色彩鲜艳、花纹华丽的丝绸服装。他们的肤色迷人却又不引人注目，他们或严肃或欢快地交谈着，几乎说个不停。他们大约一点钟上车，午餐立即供应，是中式的，但最后一道菜直到将近四点才上来。在每个车站，士兵们都列队敬礼，直到官车驶过。
Chinese soldiers with bayonetted guns stood guard at every railway station between Shanhaikwan and Mukden, and from Chinchowfu our coach was occupied by some Chinese official with guests and military attendants, including armed soldiers. The official and his guests were an attractive group of men with pleasant faces and winning manners, clad in many garments of richly figured silk of bright, attractive, but unobtrusive, colors, who talked, seriously or in mirth, almost incessantly. They took the train about one o’clock and lunch was immediately served in Chinese style, but the last course was not brought until nearly four o’clock. At every station soldiers stood in line in the attitude of salute until the official car had passed.
快到钦州府的时候，我们看到第一批播种的田地里散落着之前收割的残茬，很多时候这些残茬都被收集起来运回村庄，大堆大堆地堆在院子里，要么用作燃料，要么用来制作堆肥。火车接近塔林河时，一群群的男子正在小米地里锄地，一边是30人一组，另一边是50人一组。许多牛群、马群、驴群以及成群的山羊和绵羊在溪流边和未耕种的田地里吃草。过了车站，过了河，又经过一片沙丘，沙丘上长满了柳树，沙丘之间的平地上长满了小米。不远处，我们穿过了宽阔的未耕地，许多牛群在那里吃草，坟丘点缀其间。我们快到库潘泽（Koupantze）时，那里有一条铁路支线穿过辽河平原，通往纽川港（Newchwang）。正是在这个地区，我才第一次感受到它与我们沼泽地草地的相似之处；很快，远处就出现了一车车的干草，它们绿得发紫，如果不是个头很大，简直就像是新鲜的草。其实，它们是一车车晒干的干草，绿得透亮，无疑是在干燥的天气条件下晾晒的结果。
Just before reaching Chinchowfu we saw the first planted fields littered with stubble of the previous crop, and in many instances such stubble was being gathered and removed to the villages, large stacks having been piled in the yards to be used either as fuel or in the production of compost. As the train approached Taling ho groups of men were hoeing in millet fields, thirty in one group on one side and fifty in another body on the other. Many small herds of cattle, horses, donkeys and flocks of goats and sheep were feeding along stream courses and on the unplanted fields. Beyond the station, after crossing the river, still another sand dune tract was passed, planted with willows, millet occupying the level areas between the dunes, and not far beyond, wide untilled flats were crossed, on which many herds were grazing and dotted with grave mounds as we neared Koupantze, where a branch of the railway traverses the Liao plain to the port of Newchwang. It was in this region that there came the first suggestion of resemblance to our marshland meadows; and very soon there were seen approaching from the distance loads so green that except for the large size one would have judged them to be fresh grass. They were loads of cured hay in the brightest green, the result, no doubt, of curing under their dry weather conditions.
在大虎山，大量装在麻袋里的谷物堆放在铁轨旁和货场里，但都用草席遮蔽。在这附近，三头骡子驮着的干土堆肥也运往田里，工人们在打谷场上忙着将其碾碎、搅拌，准备使用。几乎所有种植的作物都是小米，但还有相当一部分土地尚未成熟。未种植的土地上，牛、马、骡子和驴子正在吃草，另外八车非常鲜艳的新鲜干草穿过了小路。
At Ta Hu Shan large quantities of grain in sacks were piled along the tracks and in the freight yards, but under matting shelters. Near here, too, large three-mule loads of dry earth compost were going to the fields and men were busy pulverizing and mixing it on the threshing floors preparatory for use. Nearly all crops growing were one or another of the millets, but considerable areas were yet unplanted and on these cattle, horses, mules and donkeys were feeding and eight more loads of very bright new made hay crossed the track.
火车抵达新民府后，铁路突然东转，渡过辽河，抵达奉天。我们第一次看到大批用于出口的大块豆饼，以及大量装在麻袋里的大豆，它们要么堆放在铁路沿线和货场，要么装在火车上，准备开动。离开新民府后，我们穿过一片片黄澄澄的麦田，这是我们在中国第一次看到作物缺氮，而土壤却明显缺乏有效氮的迹象。过了下一站，田地不仅呈黄色，而且坑坑洼洼，坑坑洼洼，让人想起在家乡常见的景象，而这种景象以前在这里显然是没有的。穿过辽河，河道宽阔，流沙密布，这是我们见过的水量最大的河流，但水流很低，仍是半干旱气候旱季末期的特征。我们很快到达了另一个车站，货场和铁轨两旁的所有空间都堆满了豆饼，而周围的田野却因庄稼发黄且长势不均匀而反映出土壤的贫瘠状况。
When the train reached Sinminfu where the railway turns abruptly eastward to cross the Liao ho to reach Mukden we saw the first extensive massing of the huge bean cakes for export, together with enormous quantities of soy beans in sacks piled along the railway and in the freight yards or loaded on cars made up in trains ready to move. Leaving this station we passed among fields of grain looking decidedly yellow, the first indication we had seen in China of crops nitrogen-hungry and of soils markedly deficient in available nitrogen. Beyond the next station; the fields were decidedly spotted and uneven as well as yellow, recalling conditions so commonly seen at home and which had been conspicuously absent here before. Crossing the Liao ho with its broad channel of shifting sands, the river carrying the largest volume of water we had yet seen, but the stream very low and still characteristic of the close of the dry season of semi-arid climates, we soon reached another station where the freight yards and all of the space along the tracks were piled high with bean cakes and yet the fields about were reflecting the impoverished condition of the soil through the yellow crops and their uneven growth on the fields.
自日俄战争以来，满洲的大豆和豆饼出口量大幅增加。此前，豆饼一直出口到中国南方各省，在那里用作稻田肥料。但新兴的广阔市场推高了豆饼的价格，以至于我们多次得知，当时这些省份根本无力使用豆饼作为肥料。仅从新庄一地，在1905年1月1日至3月31日期间，就有228.6万磅豆子和豆饼出口到国外，但到了1906年，这一数量已增至488.3万磅。然而，在我们访问天津期间，天津报纸刊登的一份官方报告指出，豆饼出口额1909 年，截至 3 月 31 日的几个月里，达尔尼的黄金和大豆价值仅为 1,635,000 美元，而 1908 年同期为 3,065,000 美元，1907 年为 5,120,000 美元，明显下降。
Since the Japanese-Russian war the shipments of soy beans and of bean cake from Manchuria have increased enormously. Up to this time there had been exports to the southern provinces of China where the bean cakes were used as fertilizers for the rice fields, but the new extensive markets have so raised the price that in several instances we were informed they could not then afford to use bean cake as fertilizer. From Newchwang alone, in 1905, between January 1st and March 31st, there went abroad 2,286,000 pounds of beans and bean cake, but in 1906 the amount had increased to 4,883,000 pounds. But a report published in the Tientsin papers as official, while we were there, stated that the value of the export of bean cake and soy beans from Dalny for the months ending March 31st had been, in 1909, only $1,635,000, gold, compared with $3,065,000 in the corresponding period of 1908, and of $5,120,000 in 1907, showing a marked decrease.
爱德华·C·帕克 (Edward C. Parker) 在沈阳为《评论评论》撰文称：“1908 年从新庄、大连和安东运来的豆饼共计 515,198 吨；豆类 239,298 吨；豆油 1,930 吨；总价值达 15,016,649 美元（美国黄金）”。
Edward C. Parker, writing from Mukden for the Review of Reviews, stated: “The bean cake shipments from Newchwang, Dalny and Antung in 1908 amounted to 515,198 tons; beans, 239,298 tons; bean oil, 1930 tons; having a total value of $15,016,649 (U. S. gold)”.
根据霍普金斯分析表中大豆的成分，这些大豆和豆饼的运输量总计会从满洲土壤中带走6171吨磷、10097吨钾和47812吨氮。如果两千年来一直保持这样的速度，那么满洲土壤将售出2019.4万吨钾、1234.2万吨磷和9562.4万吨氮；如果以此方式出口，这些磷的产量将超过美国迄今为止总产量的三倍以上；即使假设开采的磷酸盐岩纯度达到75%，其产量也将超过1906年世界总产量的18倍以上。
According to the composition of soy beans as indicated in Hopkins’ table of analyses, these shipments of beans and bean cake would remove an aggregate of 6171 tons of phosphorus, 10,097 tons of potassium, and 47,812 tons of nitrogen from Manchurian soils as the result of export for that year. Could such a rate have been maintained during two thousand years there would have been sold from these soils 20,194,000 tons of potassium; 12,342,000 tons of phosphorus and 95,624,000 tons of nitrogen; and the phosphorus, were it thus exported, would have exceeded more than threefold all thus far produced in the United States; it would have exceeded the world’s output in 1906 more than eighteen times, even assuming that all phosphate rock mined was seventy-five per cent pure.
华北和满洲选择小米和高粱作为主食作物，其重要性不亚于南纬地区选择稻米，两者共同决定了这些人的高维持效率。这些谷物的营养价值与小麦相当；较大品种的茎秆被广泛用作燃料和建筑材料，较小品种的茎秆则是极好的饲料，并直接用于维持土壤的有机质含量。它们生长迅速，耐旱性强，非常适合华北和满洲的气候，因为那里的雨季要到六月下旬才会开始，而秋季的天气寒冷，不利于作物生长。这些作物的快速成熟也这使得它们在整个南方地区都能得到充分利用，在普遍采用的复种种植系统中，它们具有很强的抗旱能力，当土壤过于干燥时，它们能够长时间保持静止状态，而当有利的降雨来临时，它们能够迅速生长，这使得它们可以在通常没有水灌溉的高地上使用。
The choice of the millets and the sorghums as the staple bread crops of northern China and Manchuria has been quite as remarkable as the selection of rice for the more southern latitudes, and the two together have played a most important part in determining the high maintenance efficiency of these people. In nutritive value these grains rank well with wheat; the stems of the larger varieties are extensively used for both fuel and building material and the smaller forms make excellent forage and have been used directly for maintaining the organic content of the soil. Their rapid development and their high endurance of drought adapt them admirably to the climate of north China and Manchuria where the rains begin only after late June and where weather too cold for growth comes earlier in the fall. The quick maturity of these crops also permits them to be used to great advantage even throughout the south, in their systems of mutiple cropping so generally adopted, while their great resistance to drought, being able to remain at a standstill for a long time when the soil is too dry for growth and yet be able to push ahead rapidly when favorable rains come, permits them to be used on the higher lands generally where water is not available for irrigation.
在山东省，大粒小米、高粱或高粱每英亩产量高达2000至3000磅种子，风干茎秆可产5600至6000磅，相当于1.6至1.7考德干橡木的重量。在满洲的奉天地区，其种子平均每英亩产量为35蒲式耳，重60磅，并可生产1.5吨燃料或建筑材料。霍西指出，高粱是满洲人的主食，也是役畜的主要粮食。先用冷水洗净高粱，然后倒入锅中，加入四倍于其体积的沸水，煮一个小时，像煮米饭一样不加盐。用筷子夹着煮熟或腌制的蔬菜一起食用。他声称，一个普通仆人每天大约需要两磅这种谷物，而一个从事重体力劳动的工人则需要两倍的量。他的一位中国朋友有五个仆人，每月为他们提供240磅小米，外加16磅当地面粉（据信足够两天食用）和两天的肉，具体数量未说明。小米（Setaria Italica和Panicum milliaceum）、小麦、玉米和荞麦是其他用作食物的谷物，主要作用是丰富和改变饮食。
In the Shantung province the large millet, sorghum or kaoliang, yields as high as 2000 to 3000 pounds of seed per acre, and 5600 to 6000 pounds of air-dry stems, equal in weight to 1.6 to 1.7 cords of dry oak wood. In the region of Mukden, Manchuria, its average yield of seed is placed at thirty-five bushels of sixty pounds weight per acre, and with this comes one and a half tons of fuel or of building material. Hosie states that the kaoliang is the staple food of the population of Manchuria and the principal grain food of the work animals. The grain is first washed in cold water and then poured into a kettle with four times its volume of boiling water and cooked for an hour, without salt, as with rice. It is eaten with chopsticks with boiled or salted vegetables. He states that an ordinary servant requires about two pounds of this grain per day, and that a workman at heavy labor will take double the amount. A Chinese friend of his, keeping five servants, supplied them with 240 pounds of millet per month, together with 16 pounds of native flour, regarded as sufficient for two days, and meat for two days, the amount not being stated. Two of the small millets (Setaria Italica and Panicum milliaceum), wheat, maize and buckwheat are other grains which are used as food but chiefly to give variety and change of diet.
大米的叶子还可以制成大量的席子和包装物，其用途多种多样，与日本和中国南方的米席和米袋相对应。
Very large quantities of matting and wrappings are also made from the leaves of the large millet, which serve many purposes corresponding with the rice mattings and bags of Japan and southern China.
在山东，小米每英亩产量高达 2700 磅种子和 4800 磅稻草。在日本，1906 年，日本种植了 737,719 英亩的谷子、稗子和黍子，产量为 17,084,000 蒲式耳，平均每英亩产量为 23 蒲式耳。除小米外，同年日本还在 394,523 英亩的土地上种植了 5,964,300 蒲式耳荞麦，平均每英亩产量为 15 蒲式耳。下一幅版画（图 205）显示的是一茬已经 6 英寸高的小米，它被种在温莎豆行间，这些豆子大约在六月中旬成熟。叶子落了，豆子从茎上被摘下来，过了一会儿，当豆根腐烂后，人们就会把豆茎拔出来捆成捆，用作燃料或肥料。
The small millets, in Shantung, yield as high as 2700 pounds of seed and 4800 pounds of straw per acre. In Japan, in the year 1906, there were grown 737,719 acres of foxtail, barnyard and proso millet, yielding 17,084,000 bushels of seed or an average of twenty-three bushels per acre. In addition to the millets, Japan grew, the same year, 5,964,300 bushels of buckwheat on 394,523 acres, or an average of fifteen bushels per acre. The next engraving, Fig. 205, shows a crop of millet already six inches high planted between rows of Windsor beans which had matured about the middle of June. The leaves had dropped, the beans had been picked from the stems, and a little later, when the roots had had time to decay the bean stems would be pulled and tied in bundles for use as fuel or for fertilizer.
图 205 在日本千叶县，一排排温莎豆中间种植着小米。
Fig. 205.—Field of millet planted between rows of Windsor beans. Chiba, Japan.
经过一整天的持续密切观察和写作，我们到达沈阳时已经疲惫不堪。我们计划停留的利顺德大酒店离车站有三英里，是唯一能接火车的交通工具。那是一辆四座无弹簧、敞篷半行李箱，我们花了整整一个小时才到达酒店。但在这里，就像在东方的任何地方一样，外国人都能遇到各种生活场景和阶段，足以转移他们对任何不适的注意力。没有什么比满族女士独特的着装方式更引人注目了。她们的头发，如图206所示，在傍晚的骑行中，她们在街上见过很多这样的人。她们的头发做得既可怕又奇妙，乌黑光滑，几乎像火鸡公鸡的尾巴一样横向展开，又像公鸡的尾巴一样向后弯曲；远不如中国或日本女士们所采用的朴素、精致、朴素但又极具艺术感的发型那么吸引人。
We had reached Mukden thoroughly tired after a long day of continuous close observation and writing. The Astor House, where we were to stop, was three miles from the station and the only conveyance to meet the train was a four-seated springless, open, semi-baggage carryall and it was a full hour lumbering its way to our hotel. But here as everywhere in the Orient the foreigner meets scenes and phases of life competent to divert his attention from almost any discomfort. Nothing could be more striking than the peculiar mode the Manchu ladies have of dressing their hair, seen in Fig. 206, many instances of which were passed on the streets during this early evening ride. It was fearfully and wonderfully done, laid in the smoothest, glossiest black, with nearly the lateral spread of the tail of a turkey cock and much of the backward curve of that of the rooster; far less attractive than the plainer, refined, modest, yet highly artistic style adopted by either Chinese or Japanese ladies.
图206：满族妇女和女仆。（根据霍西作品）
Fig. 206.—A Manchu lady and servant. (After Hosie.)
从奉天到安东需要两天时间，火车在草河口停留一夜。我们的路线大部分路段都是山区或陡峭的丘陵地带，我们的火车由小型车厢组成，由一台小型机车牵引，行驶在一条三英尺二英寸的窄轨轻轨上。这条轻轨是日俄战争期间铺设的，目的是将军队和物资运送到辽宁和松花江平原上争夺激烈的战场。许多坡度陡峭，弯道急转弯，在一些地方，为了方便机车通过，短小的列车不得不分头行驶。
The journey from Mukden to Antung required two days, the train stopping for the night at Tsaohokow. Our route lay most of the way through mountainous or steep hilly country and our train was made up of diminutive coaches drawn by a tiny engine over a three-foot two-inch narrow guage track of light rails laid by the Japanese during the war with Russia, for the purpose of moving their armies and supplies to the hotly contested fields in the Liao and Sungari plains. Many of the grades were steep, the curves sharp, and in several places it was necessary to divide the short train to enable the engines to negotiate them.
辽河平原南行，农作物几乎全是小米和大豆，还有少量大麦、小麦和燕麦。从奉天到浑河对岸的第一个车站，我们经过了浑河一侧24块面积较大的大豆田，另一侧22块。到达丘陵地带之前，我们行驶了大约15英里，沿着道路经过了309块类似的大豆田。在这段路程中，我们还经过了两座日军竖立的纪念碑，纪念他们那些令人难忘的战役遗址。这些田地到处平坦，高出几乎干涸的河床16到20英尺，耕作主要依靠马匹或牛群。
To the southward over the Liao plain the crops were almost exclusively millet and soy beans, with a little barley, wheat, and a few oats. Between Mukden and the first station across the Hun river we had passed twenty-four good sized fields of soy beans on one side of the river and twenty-two on the other, and before reaching the hilly country, after travelling a distance of possibly fifteen miles, we had passed 309 other and similar fields close along the track. In this distance also we had passed two of the monuments erected by the Japanese, marking sites of their memorable battles. These fields were everywhere flat, lying from sixteen to twenty feet above the beds of the nearly dry streams, and the cultivation was mostly being done with horses or cattle.
离开平原地区后，铁路穿过一条不到一英里宽的狭窄蜿蜒的山谷，坡度陡峭，导致我们的火车被分开。山坡上足足有60%的土地被耕种，几乎一直延伸到山顶。但海拔高度似乎超过三到五英尺，未开垦的山坡上长满了小树，很少有超过二十到三十英尺高的，但显然是成片成片的，树龄各不相同。过了山口，许多耕种过的山坡上都有带围墙的梯田。我们穿过一条大河，河面上正用木筏运送铁路枕木。过了这条河，火车再次分成两组，上坡坡度为三十比一，经过五次折返后到达山顶，过了山口的另一边，又是下坡，坡度为四十比一。
After leaving the plains country the railway traversed a narrow winding valley less than a mile wide, with gradient so steep that our train was divided. Fully sixty per cent of the hill slopes were cultivated nearly to the summit and yet rising apparently more than one in three to five feet, and the uncultivated slopes were closely wooded with young trees, few more than twenty to thirty feet high, but in blocks evidently of different ages. Beyond the pass many of the cultivated slopes have walled terraces. We crossed a large stream where railway ties were being rafted down the river. Just beyond this river the train was again divided to ascend a gradient of one in thirty, reaching the summit by five times switching back, and matched on the other side of the pass by a down grade of one in forty.
沿途狭窄山谷中的许多农舍都堆放着巨大的矩形平顶堆肥，这些堆肥堆高30到40英寸，地面面积有20、30、40，甚至有的地方甚至高达60平方英尺。越来越明显的是，这些山地和丘陵地带原本森林茂密，新树迅速生长，发展迅速。同样明显的是，频繁砍伐这些林地的习俗由来已久，砍伐的树木并不总是处于同一生长阶段，但通常是在树木还很小的时候。大量的木材被堆放在铁路沿线的车站，然后被装上车厢。这些木材要么是圆木，要么是只劈开过一次的木棍；大量的木炭，主要由圆木或只劈开过一次的木棍制成，被装在类似装米的麻袋里运输，如图180所示。一些带状森林似乎已经二十年或更久没有受到干扰，但大多数地区的砍伐频率更高，通常是三到五年一次，或者十年一次。
At many of the farm houses in the narrow valleys along the way large rectangular, flat topped compost piles were passed, thirty to forty inches high and twenty, thirty, forty and even in one case as much as sixty feet square on the ground. More and more it became evident that these mountain and hill lands were originally heavily wooded and that the new growth springs up quickly, developing rapidly. It was clear also that the custom of cutting over these wooded areas at frequent intervals is very old, not always in the same stage of growth but usually when the trees are quite small. Considerable quantities of cordwood were piled at the stations along the railway and were being loaded on the cars. This was always either round wood or sticks split but once; and much charcoal, made mostly from round wood or sticks split but once, was being shipped in sacks shaped like those used for rice, seen in Fig. 180. Some strips of the forest growth had been allowed to stand undisturbed apparently for twenty or more years, but most areas have been cut at more frequent intervals, often apparently once in three to five, or perhaps ten, years.
在几处湍急的河流上，安装了现代涡轮水轮机的原型，用于研磨豆类或谷物。与中国各地的本土机械一样，这些水轮机的功率被降到最低，其工作原理几乎未经任何解释。这些涡轮机是向下排放式的，很像我们现代的风车，每台风轮机功率为10到16马力。直径约100英尺，水平安装在贯穿磨坊底部的垂直轴上，叶片周围有轮辋，水从轮子上落下，经倾斜设置的叶片反射后发生反作用。美国工程师和机械师会说这些装置非常粗糙、原始且低效。更真实的看法是，它们体现了某个人对原理的精湛掌握，他很久以前就发现了水流中未被利用的能量，并成功地将其转化为实际用途。
At several places on the rapid streams crossed, prototypes of the modern turbine water-wheel were installed, doing duty grinding beans or grain. As with native machinery everywhere in China, these wheels were reduced to the lowest terms and the principle put to work almost unclothed. These turbines were of the downward discharge type, much resembling our modern windmills, ten to sixteen feet in diameter, set horizontally on a vertical axis rising through the floor of the mill, with the vanes surrounded by a rim, the water dropping through the wheel, reacting when reflected from the obliquely set vanes. American engineers and mechanics would pronounce these very crude, primitive and inefficient. A truer view would regard them as examples of a masterful grasp of principle by some man who long ago saw the unused energy of the stream and succeeded thus in turning it to account.
图 207——韩国人在国家“摇摆日”穿着节日服装聚会。
Fig. 207.—Gathering of Koreans in holiday attire, on their national “Swing day.”
我们旅程的两天都阳光明媚，温暖宜人。虽然我们一大早就从奉天乘火车，但一位年轻的日本人预料到天气会很热，只穿着和服和凉鞋，提着一个行李箱和另一个包裹上了车。他坐了一整天，是火车上穿得最舒服的，尽管有点不雅。第二天早上，他穿着同样的衣服坐在我们前面的座位上。不过，火车还没到安东，他就把行李箱取了下来，然后特意打扮了一下。他穿着一身精致的外国西装，把和服折叠起来，和凉鞋一起收起来。
Both days of our journey had been bright and very warm and, although we took the train early in the morning at Mukden, a young Japanese anticipated the heat, entering the train clad only in his kimono and sandals, carrying a suitcase and another bundle. He rode all day, the most comfortably, if immodestly, clad man on the train, and the next morning took his seat in front of us clad in the same garb, but before the train reached Antung he took down his suitcase and then and there, deliberately attired himself in a good foreign suit, folding his kimono and packing it away with his sandals.
6月22日早上6点30分，我们从安东乘渡轮渡过鸭绿江，前往新威州。我们来到了一个截然不同的国家，身边的人也截然不同，尽管所有的铁路官员、员工、警察和警卫都是日本人，就像在沈阳时一样。在安东和新威州，鸭绿江是一条非常宽阔、缓缓流淌的河道，与其说是一条河流，不如说更像是一条海的臂膀，让人想起佛罗里达州杰克逊维尔的圣约翰河。
From Antung we crossed the Yalu on the ferry to New Wiju at 6:30 A. M., June 22, and were then in quite a different country and among a very different people, although all of the railway officials, employes, police and guards were Japanese, as they had been from Mukden. At Antung and New Wiju the Yalu is a very broad slow stream resembling an arm of the sea more than a river, reminding one of the St. Johns at Jacksonville, Florida.
图 208。摇摆日，一群韩国人在 Gyoha 听一位公众演讲者讲话。
Fig. 208.—Group of Koreans at Gyoha, being addressed by a public speaker on Swing day.
6月22日是韩国的国庆节之一，被称为“秋千日”。在我们前往首尔的路上，田野几乎空无一人，成群结队的人们穿着盛装，沿着铁路线出现，有时甚至聚集了两三千人，甚至更多，如图207所示。许多秋千都挂在那里，年轻人正在玩耍。男孩和男人在秋千里嬉戏。各种各样的“游泳池”和场所。此外，还有许多大型露天集会，由公众演讲者发表演讲，其中一个如图208所示。
June 22nd proved to be one of the national festival days in Korea, called “Swing day”, and throughout our entire ride to Seoul the fields were nearly all deserted and throngs of people, arrayed in gala dress, appeared all along the line of the railway, sometimes congregating in bodies of two to three thousand or more, as seen in Fig. 207. Many swings had been hung and were being enjoyed by the young people. Boys and men were bathing in all sorts of “swimming holes” and places. So too, there were many large open air gatherings being addressed by public speakers, one of which is seen in Fig. 208.
几乎每个人都穿着白色的外衣，外衣是用某种布料做成的，虽然不像蚊帐，但却几乎一样敞开，而且非常硬挺，似乎能以惊人的效果保持住每一个凹痕，而且这布料非常透明，可以露出第三件内衣。图 20—⑷中可以看到五位朝鲜妇女穿着宽大的裙子，与之搭配的裤子也相当宽松，但紧紧地绑在脚踝处。这些衣服似乎具有强大的排斥力，使它们与人保持相当大的距离，这无疑大大提高了舒适度。那天风很大，但又是闷热潮湿的一天，看到这些敞开的衣服在风中飘动，让人感到凉爽。
Nearly everyone was dressed in white outer garments made from some fabric which although not mosquito netting was nearly as open and possessed of a remarkable stiffness which seemed to take and retain every dent with astonishing effect and which was sufficiently transparent to reveal a third undergarment. The full out-standing skirts of five Korean women may be seen in Fig. 209, and the trousers which went with these were proportionately full but tied close about the ankles. The garments seemed to be possessed of a powerful repulsion which held them quite apart and away from the person, no doubt contributing much to comfort. It was windy but one of those hot sultry, sticky days, and it made one feel cool to see these open garments surging in the wind.
图 209. 五名身着硬挺白色衣服的韩国妇女。
Fig. 209.—Group of five Korean women in their stiff white clothing.
朝鲜男人和中国人一样，留着长发，但不编成辫子。头发不剃光，而是紧紧地盘在头顶，用发夹固定。就我们乘坐的那辆从奉天到安东的马车上的那位朝鲜人而言，这发夹就是一根价值十便士的现代金属钉。用细竹条编织而成的敞檐帽，高而窄，呈锥形，显然是为了迎合这种发型而设计的，同时也是为了显得时尚。
The Korean men, like the Chinese, wear the hair long but not braided in a queue. No part of the head is shaved but the hair is wound in a tight coil on the top of the head, secured by a pin which, in the case of the Korean who rode in our coach from Mukden to Antung, was a modern, substantial ten-penny wire nail. The tall, narrow, conical crowns of the open hats, woven from thin bamboo splints, are evidently designed to accommodate this style of hair dressing as well as to be cool.
图 210——一组韩国农舍，茅草屋顶、土墙，坐落在树木繁茂的山脚下。
Fig. 210.—Group of Korean farm houses with thatched roofs and earthern walls, standing at the foot of wooded hills.
这里和中国及满洲一样，几乎所有作物都成排种植，包括小麦、黑麦、大麦和燕麦等谷物。我们首先穿过一片平坦的沼泽地带，土壤为沙质，水位低于地表不到四英尺，在最低的地方，我们野生的鸢尾花的近亲——紫花地丁正在盛开。小麦正在抽穗，但玉米和小米的个头比满洲的要小。我们早上7点半离开新威州，8点15分，我们从低地进入了山谷狭窄的丘陵地带。山坡上零星散布着一些幼松，高度很少超过10到25英尺。我们走近时，发现山上长满了许多小橡树，这些新芽显然不超过一两年。乡村住宅的屋顶通常用稻草铺成木瓦，如图210所示。远处的山丘上可以看到前面提到的低矮树木，但在这里却异常茂密。沿途随处可见成捆的松枝，它们被堆放在山坡上遮风挡雨，显然是用来做燃料的。
Here, too, as in China and Manchuria, nearly all crops are planted in rows, including the cereals, such as wheat, rye, barley and oats. We traversed first a flat marshy country with sandy soil and water not more than four feet below the surface where, on the lowest areas a close ally of our wild flower-de-luce was in bloom. Wheat was coming into head but corn and millet were smaller than in Manchuria. We had left New Wiju at 7:30 in the morning and at 8 :15 we passed from the low land into a hill country with narrow valleys. Scattering young pine, seldom more than ten to twenty-five feet high, occupied the slopes and as we came nearer the hills were seen to be clothed with many small oak, the sprouts clearly not more than one or two years old. Roofs of dwellings in the country were usually thatched with straw laid after the manner of shingles, as may be seen in Fig. 210, where the hills beyond show the low tree growth referred to, but here unusually dense. Bundles of pine boughs, stacked and sheltered from the weather, were common along the way and evidently used for fuel.
8点25分，我们穿过了第一条隧道，沿途有很多隧道，最长的一条需要三十秒才能让火车通过。远处的山谷是一片片麦田，田垄之间种着豆子。到目前为止，这些田地都没有像中国那样耕作得如此彻底、照料得如此周到，庄稼的收成也没有那么好。我们继续前行，经过一些山丘，那里的松树有两种不同的年龄，一种大约三十英尺高，另一种十二到十五英尺或更低，其中有许多橡树幼苗。很可能这些幼苗是野蚕的食物。在一些地方，橡树和其他落叶植物以及草类可以每年砍伐一次，只有松树可以存活更长时间。我们向南行进，经过湖水后，山坡上长满了橡树幼苗，它们像普通的庄稼一样蔓延到山坡上，高达两到四英尺。山脚下的房屋边，随处可见一捆捆的橡树幼苗，这再次表明这些叶子可能是用来喂柞蚕的，尽管第一次换毛的时间似乎已经晚了。离开首尔后，我们进入了更为广阔的山谷，那里种植着更为广泛的水稻，人们开始广泛地使用从山地里砍下来的橡树枝和青草作为绿肥。
At 8:25 we passed through the first tunnel and there were many along the route, the longest requiring thirty seconds for the passing of the train. The valley beyond was occupied by fields of wheat where beans were planted between the rows. Thus far none of the fields had been as thoroughly tilled and well cared for as those seen in China, nor were the crops as good. Further along we passed hills where the pines were all of two ages, one set about thirty feet high and the others twelve to fifteen feet or less, and among these were numerous oak sprouts. Quite possibly these are used as food for the wild silkworms. In some places appearances indicate that the oak and other deciduous growth, with the grass, may be cut annually and only the pines allowed to stand for longer periods. As we proceeded southward and had passed Kosui the young oak sprouts were seen to cover the hills, often stretching over the slopes much like a regular crop, standing at a hight of two to four feet, and fresh bundles of these sprouts were seen at houses along the foot of the slopes, again suggesting that the leaves may be for the tussur silkworms although the time appears late for the first moulting. After we had left Seoul, entering the broader valleys where rice was more extensively grown, the using of the oak boughs and green grass brought down from the hill lands for green manure became very extensive.
冬季和早春作物收割完毕后，人们用简单的犁把作物生长的窄垄翻耕成沟，犁耕工具由一头笨重的公牛拉动。这种牛与中国的牛不同，但与日本的牛非常相似。之后，田地被水淹没，直到变成图12所示的形状。被水淹没的田垄上长满了绿草和橡树枝，人们再次翻耕，将耕作物压入湿润的土壤中。如果翻耕不彻底，人们就会进入田地，踩踏地面，直到每根嫩枝和叶片都被淹没。图中中间部分已经装填并移植；在它前面和左边是另外两块田地，曾经翻耕过但未施肥；最右边的田地已经施了绿肥，并进行了第二次翻耕，但尚未完成；在画面正前方，草和树枝已经散落，但第二次翻耕尚未完成。
After the winter and early spring crops have been harvested the narrow ridges on which they are grown are turned into the furrows by means of their simple plow drawn by a heavy bullock, different from the cattle in China but closely similar to those in Japan. The fields are then flooded until they have the appearance seen in Fig. 12. Over these flooded ridges the green grass and oak boughs are spread, when the fields are again plowed and the material worked into the wet soil. If this working is not completely successful men enter the fields and tramp the surface until every twig and blade is submerged. The middle section in this illustration has been fitted and transplanted; in front of it and on the left are two other fields once plowed but not fertilized; those far to the right have had the green manure applied and the ground plowed a second time but not finished, and in the immediate foreground the grass and boughs have been scattered but the second plowing is not yet done.
图 211、山谷全景，显示正在移植的韩国稻田，前景中用山地里的绿色草本植物施肥。
Fig. 211.—General view across valley, showing Korean rice fields being transplanted, and in the foreground fertilized with green herbage from the hill lands.
我们经过了从山地里运来的人和牛群，他们驮着这些绿色的草本植物，我们继续向富山越来越多的丘陵地区被用来为耕地提供绿肥。图211中的前景就是这样处理的，图212中的田地也是如此，那里的人正在把肥料踩实。在很多情况下，这些肥料被铺在稻田边缘；在其他情况下，这些肥料是在谷物割下后立即被带到田里，堆放在捆包之间；还有些情况下，当谷物还在生长但即将收割时，人们就把绿肥的肥料搬运到田垄之间。在一些田地里，人们每隔三英尺就在整个田地里铺上足足三分之一蒲式耳的绿肥。在另一些情况下，人们将草木灰和粪肥交替堆放，并将混合的粪肥和草木灰与绿肥交替堆放。
We passed men and bullocks coming from the hill lands loaded with this green herbage and as we proceeded towards Fusan more and more of the hill area was being made to contribute materials for green manure for the cultivated fields. The foreground of Fig. 211 had been thus treated and so had the field in Fig. 212, where the man was engaged in tramping the dressing beneath the surface. In very many cases this material was laid along the margin of the paddies; in other cases it had been taken upon the fields as soon as the grain was cut and was lying in piles among the bundles; while in still other cases the material for green manure had been carried between the rows while the grain was still standing, but nearly ready to harvest. In some fields a full third of a bushel of the green stuff had been laid down at intervals of three feet over the whole area. In other cases piles of ashes alternated with those of herbage, and again manure and ashes mixed had been distributed in alternate piles with the green manure.
图 212、稻田里覆盖着从山上砍下来的橡树叶和草，其中一半被工人踩到了地表下。
Fig. 212.—Rice paddy covered with oak leaves and grass brought down from the hills, one half of which has been tramped beneath the surface by the laborer at work.
在其他情况下，我们看到未经处理的稻草被撒在田里等待施用。在新都，这些稻草看起来像是浸过或涂抹过某种混合物，似乎是泥土和灰烬的混合物，也可能是用水调成稀糊状的堆肥。
In still other cases we saw untreated straw distributed through the fields awaiting application. At Shindo this straw had the appearance of having been dipped in or smeared with some mixture, apparently of mud and ashes or possibly of some compost which had been worked into a thin paste with water.
过了庆山之后，山上的牧草被大捆大捆地从山上运下来，放在精心制作的牛背架上。在一片田地里，我们看到一个人刚刚回到他的小田地，用他那架式的打包机扛着巨大的货物。由此可见，朝鲜人也种植了水稻，这种作物在水源充足的条件下产量很高；我们发现他们用山上的水补充夏季的暴雨，并将青草（作为腐殖质和有机质）以及山上燃料产生的灰烬带到田里，以此弥补密集种植造成的不可避免的损失。
After passing Keizan, mountain herbage had been brought down from the hills in large bales on cleverly constructed racks saddled to the backs of bullocks, and in one field we saw a man who had just come to his little field with an enormous load borne upon his easel-like packing appliance. Thus we find the Koreans also adopting the rice crop, which yields heavily under conditions of abundant water; we find them supplementing a heavy summer rainfall with water from their hills, and bringing to their fields besides both green herbage for humus and organic matter, and ashes derived from the fuel coming also from the hills, in these ways making good the unavoidable losses through intense cropping.
图 213、山谷顶部的稻田，远处的山地上散落着松树。
Fig. 213.—Rice paddies at head of mountain valley, with scattering pines in the hill lands beyond.
我们看到，在韩国，靠近耕地山谷的森林生长量并不大，这在图 210、213 和 214 中得到了很好的体现。有明显的周期性砍伐的证据，以及相当多的大量的木柴被劈成一英尺厚的木材，用牛驮着运到车站。有些地方有明显的、有时非常严重的土壤侵蚀，如图214所示，在到达锦山之前就经过了这样一个地区。但总体来说，这些山丘地势圆润，覆盖着低矮的灌木和草本植物。
The amount of forest growth in Korea, as we saw it, in proximity to the cultivated valleys, is nowhere large and is fairly represented in Figs. 210, 213 and 214. There were clear evidences of periodic cutting and considerable amounts of cordwood split from timber a foot through were being brought to the stations on the backs of cattle. In some places there was evident and occasionally very serious soil erosion, as may be seen in Fig. 214, one such region being passed just before reaching Kinusan, but generally the hills are well rounded and covered with a low growth of shrubs and herbaceous plants.
朝鲜最南端的纬度与南卡罗来纳州、佐治亚州、阿拉巴马州和密西西比州的北部边界相同，而东北角则与威斯康星州麦迪逊市和内布拉斯加州的北部边界接壤，因此朝鲜半岛横跨北纬九度六百英里。朝鲜领土面积约为82,000平方英里，大约相当于明尼苏达州的面积，但大部分地表都是陡峭的丘陵和山地。6月23日，雨季尚未到来。首尔南部的小麦和小谷类作物几乎全部收割完毕，人们在露天、房屋周围或田野里忙着用连枷打谷，常常是四把连枷同时敲打同一块谷粒。随着我们向南行进，山谷和田野变得越来越宽阔，作物的产量和耕作方式也明显好得多。
Southernmost Korea has the latitude of the northern boundary of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, while the northeast corner attains that of Madison, Wisconsin, and the northern boundary of Nebraska, the country thus spanning some nine degrees and six hundred miles of latitude. It has an area of some 82,000 square miles, about equaling the state of Minnesota, but much of its surface is occupied by steep hill and mountain land. The rainy season had not yet set in, June 23rd. Wheat and the small grains were practically all harvested southward of Seoul and the people were everywhere busy with their flails threshing in the open, about the dwellings or in the fields, four flails often beating together on the same lot of grain. As we journeyed southward the valleys and the fields became wider and more extensive, and the crops, as well as the cultural methods, were clearly much better.
图 214——透过麦田望去，山坡正在被侵蚀，森林正在蔓延生长。
Fig. 214.—Looking across fields of wheat at an eroding hillside over which forest growth is being allowed to spread.
在朝鲜，我们既没有看到中国人用脚踏、畜力提水，也没有看到他们用木链泵提水。但我们见到了许多长柄、勺状的摆动式水瓢，它用一根绳子悬挂在高高的三脚架上，就像图215所示的那样，每个水瓢都由一个人操作，而且在低海拔提水时效率很高。我们还见到了两种如图173所示的提水方式，其中一个人沿着水轮的圆周行走，这种提水方式在日本很常见。朝鲜南部种植了大量大麻，但到处都是非常小的孤立区域，这些区域点缀着深绿色的田野，每一小块田地可能都代表着一个家庭的收成。
Neither the foot-power, animal-power, nor the wooden chain pump of the Chinese were observed in Korea in use for lifting water, but we saw many instances of the long handled, spoonlike swinging scoop hung over the water by a cord from tall tripods, after the manner seen in Fig. 215, each operated by one man and apparently with high efficiency for low lifts. Two instances also were observed of the form of lift seen in Fig. 173, where the man walks the circumference of the wheel, so commonly observed in Japan. Much hemp was being grown in southern Korea but everywhere on very small isolated areas which flecked the landscape with the deepest green, each little field probably representing the crop of a single family.
图 215。韩国用于灌溉的摆动式水瓢，水位升高三到四英尺。
Fig. 215.—Korean swinging scoop for irrigation where the water is raised three or four feet.
经过一段炎热而尘土飞扬的旅程后，我们的火车抵达了扶山，已经是下午6点半了。服务很好，也相当舒适，但美国制造的冰水箱没有火车，取而代之的是各种品牌的瓶装冷水，包括苏打水，几乎每个重要车站都有日本男孩售卖。火车与往返日本的轮船紧密相连，我们直接登上了将于晚上8点起锚前往门司和下关的“亿岐丸”号轮船。这艘轮船虽然不大，但设备齐全，服务一流。我们很幸运，一路顺利，第二天早上6:30就停泊在那里，与开往长崎的火车紧密相连，并借助汽艇抵达码头。
It was 6:30 P. M. when our train reached Fusan after a hot and dusty ride. The service had been good and fairly comfortable but the ice-water tanks of American trains were absent, their place being supplied by cooled bottled waters of various brands, including soda-water, sold by Japanese boys at nearly every important station. Close connection was made by trains with steamers to and from Japan and we went directly on board the Iki Maru which was to weigh anchor for Moji and Shimonoseki at 8 P. M. Although small, the steamer was well equipped, providing the best of service. We were fortunate in having a smooth passage, anchoring at 6:30 the next morning and making close connection with the train for Nagasaki, landing at the wharf with the aid of a steam launch.
我们乘火车穿越九州岛，沿途的景色与刚刚离开的景色并无太大区别。一路上，稻田随处可见，朝鲜族的特色鲜明，但通常耕作方式更完善、更密集，而且季节也更早一些。这里的耕作主要用马匹，而不是朝鲜独有的笨重公牛。从中国来到朝鲜，再从那里来到日本，我们清楚地看到，在农业方法和器具方面，朝鲜人和日本人比中国人和朝鲜人更为相似。我们对日本的耕作方法了解得越多，就越强烈地形成了这样一种印象：日本人的耕作方法要么源自朝鲜人，要么朝鲜人更多地借鉴了日本而非中国。
Our ride by train through the island of Kyushu carried us through scenes not widely different from those we had just left. The journey was continuously among fields of rice, with Korean features strongly marked but usually under better and more intensified culture, and the season, too, was a little more advanced. Here the plowing was being done mostly with horses instead of the heavy bullocks so exclusively employed in Korea. Coming from China into Korea, and from there into Japan, it appeared very clear that in agricultural methods and appliances the Koreans and Japanese are more closely similar than the Chinese and Koreans, and the more we came to see of the Japanese methods the more strongly the impression became fixed that the Japanese had derived their methods either from the Koreans or the Koreans had taken theirs more largely from Japan than from China.
正是在从门司到长崎的旅途中，我们体验到了日本火车上为旅客提供午餐的诱人方式，而且非常令人满意。在重要的车站，人们会用带盖带盖的小釉陶茶壶将热茶送到车窗，并配上一个同样材质的茶杯。这套茶具和茶杯的价格是五钱二分半，也就是我们的货币。所有茶都不加牛奶或糖。午餐非常丰盛，整齐卫生地放在一个三格木箱里，木箱由干净的木材精心制作而成，并用……连接起来。木钉和完美的接头。我们发现盖子里有一张纸巾、牙签和一双筷子。第二个隔间里有肉、鸡肉和鱼的薄片，还有竹芽、咸菜、糕点和小块咸菜，而下层和主隔间里装满了煮得很硬且不加盐的米饭，这是这三个国家的习俗。盒子长约六英寸，深约四英寸，宽约三英寸半。这些午餐用一尘不染的薄白纸整齐地包好，并用一点颜料精致地扎好，交给旅客，所有这些只需 25 仙（12.5 美分）。因此，只需支付 15 美分，旅客就可以透过车窗以尊重的态度收到一顿丰盛的饭菜，他可以随意享用。
It was on this ride from Moji to Nagasaki that we were introduced to the attractive and very satisfactory manner of serving lunches to travelers on the trains in Japan. At important stations hot tea is brought to the car windows in small glazed, earthernware teapots provided with cover and bail, and accompanied with a teacup of the same ware. The set and contents could be purchased for five sen, two and a half cents, our currency. All tea is served without milk or sugar. The lunches were very substantial and put together in a neat sanitary manner in a three-compartment wooden box, carefully made from clear lumber joined with wooden pegs and perfect joints. Packed in the cover we found a paper napkin, toothpicks and a pair of chopsticks. In the second compartment there were thin slices of meat, chicken and fish, together with bamboo sprouts, pickles, cakes and small bits of salted vegetables, while the lower and chief compartment was filled with rice cooked quite stiff and without salt, as is the custom in the three countries. The box was about six inches long, four inches deep and three and a half inches wide. These lunches are handed to travelers neatly wrapped in spotless thin white paper daintily tied with a bit of color, all in exchange for 25 sen,—12.5 cents. Thus for fifteen cents the traveler is handed, through the car window, in a respectful manner, a square meal which he may eat at his leisure.
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我们回到日本时正值第一个雨季，6月25日一整天，长崎连续两夜都下着蒙蒙细雨，几乎没有间断。日本酒店对面的狭窄街道上，矗立着两栋客房，靠近一处高出街道28英尺、面朝美丽海港的带墙露台。要到达客房，只能沿着蜿蜒的石阶，沿着铺砌的平台蜿蜒而上，继续向上，穿过挡土墙，墙顶上长满了茂密的灌木丛，枝叶繁茂，在雨滴的映衬下显得格外翠绿，让人感觉像是在楼梯间侧身行走，唯恐雨水留下污渍。我们又爬上一段更长、更蜿蜒的台阶，来到了美国领事馆。在这座美丽而僻静的住所里，总领事席德莫尔免去了处理美国游客和人力车夫之间那些看似琐碎的恩怨的诸多麻烦。
We had returned to Japan in the midst of the first rainy season, and all the day through, June 25th, and two nights, a gentle rain fell at Nagasaki, almost without interruption. Across the narrow street from Hotel Japan were two of its guest houses, standing near the front of a wall-faced terrace rising twenty-eight feet above the street and facing the beautiful harbor. They were accessible only by winding stone steps shifting on paved landings to continue the ascent between retaining walls overhung with a wealth of shrubbery clothed in the densest foliage, so green and liquid in the drip of the rain, that one almost felt like walking edgewise amid stairs lest the drip should leave a stain. Over such another series of steps, but longer and more winding, we found our way to the American Consulate where in the beautifully secluded quarters Consul-General Scidmore escaped many annoyances of settling the imagined petty grievances arising between American tourists and the ricksha boys.
在札幌帝国大学和国家农商部的热情接待下，时户教授在长崎与我们会面，并陪同我们在日本的大部分旅程。我们首先参观的是长崎县立农业实验站。长崎四个主要岛屿上还有40个农业实验站，平均每个实验站面积4280平方英里，人口120万。
Through the kind offices of the Imperial University of Sapporo and of the National Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Professor Tokito met us at Nagasaki, to act as escort through most of the journey in Japan. Our first visit was to the prefectural Agricultural Experiment Station at Nagasaki. There are forty others in the four main islands, one to an average area of 4280 square miles, and to each 1,200,000 people.
九州岛的纬度与密西西比河中段和路易斯安那州北部相同，每年有两季水稻收成，而长崎的园丁则种植三季作物。园丁及其家人耕种大约五坦（约合一又四分之一英亩）的土地，每英亩年收益约为250美元。为了维持这些收益，需要施用价值60美元/英亩的肥料，这些肥料分摊用于三种作物的种植。肥料主要来自城市垃圾、动物粪便、下水道淤泥、燃料灰和草皮，所有这些肥料都经过堆肥处理。如果觉得肥料支出很高，那么必须记住，几乎所有产品都会出售，而且每年有三季作物。如此高强度的耕作如果要保持高产，就需要丰厚的回报。这里优质的农田价值每坦300日元，约合每英亩600美元。
The island of Kyushu, whose latitude is that of middle Mississippi and north Louisiana, has two rice harvests, and gardeners at Nagasaki grow three crops, each year. The gardener and his family work about five tan, or a little less than one and one-quarter acres, realizing an annual return of some $250 per acre. To maintain these earnings fertilizers are applied rated worth $60 per acre, divided between the three crops, the materials used being largely the wastes of the city, animal manure, mud from the drains, fuel ashes and sod, all composted together. If this expenditure for fertilizers appears high it must be remembered that nearly the whole product is sold and that there are three crops each year. Such intense culture requires a heavy return if large yields are maintained. Good agricultural lands were here valued at 300 yen per tan, approximately $600 per acre.
回门司参观福冈县农业试验站时，路途最初一段的稻田高出水面约八英寸。沿途的大型莲花池占据了排水不畅的区域，稻田和未耕种的山地之间的边缘地带种植着南瓜、玉米、豆类和爱尔兰土豆。许多小块土地在狭窄的田埂上种植着红薯，田埂顶部稀疏地铺着绿草，有时还铺着稻草或其他杂物，以遮荫并防止雨后烈日的冲刷和烘烤。在木津，我们经过了附近的政府盐场，那里通过蒸发海水来制盐。在日本，像中国一样，这项产业也是政府垄断的。
When returning toward Moji to visit the Agricultural Experiment Station of Fukuoka prefecture, the rice along the first portion of the route was standing about eight inches above the water. Large lotus ponds along the way occupied areas not readily drained, and the fringing fields between the rice paddies and the untilled hill lands were bearing squash, maize, beans and Irish potatoes. Many small areas had been set to sweet potatoes on close narrow ridges, the tops of which were thinly strewn with green grass, or sometimes with straw or other litter, for shade and to prevent the soil from washing and baking in the hot sun after rains. At Kitsu we passed near Government salt works, for the manufacture of salt by the evaporation of sea water, this industry in Japan, as in China, being a Government monopoly.
沿途收集了许多捆草和其他绿色牧草，准备用于稻田。在其他情况下，绿肥已经撒在被水淹没的稻田上，正在地下进行耕作，如图21—2所示。此时，山地披上了最茂盛、最深邃的绿色，但树木生长得并不茂盛，除了紧邻稻田的附近。寺庙，通常分布在不同的狭小区域，由于树龄不同，边界清晰。有些区域是最近才砍伐的；有些是第二年、第三年或第四年；还有一些区域可能已经生长了七到十年。在一个村庄里，许多捆捆的灌木燃料是从附近最近清理出来的区域收集来的。
Many bundles of grass and other green herbage were collected along the way, gathered for use in the rice fields. In other cases the green manure had already been spread over the flooded paddies and was being worked beneath the surface, as seen in Fig. 216. At this time the hill lands were clothed in the richest, deepest green but the tree growth was nowhere large except immediately about temples, and was usually in distinct small areas with sharp boundaries occasioned by differences in age. Some tracts had been very recently cut; others were in their second, third or fourth years; while others still carried a growth of perhaps seven to ten years. At one village many bundles of the brush fuel had been gathered from an adjacent area, recently cleared.
几块田地里还长着二月份种在谷田间的大豆，青草正被翻耕到被水淹没的土地里，准备种植水稻。运到田里的大量堆肥被堆放在中间，中间铺着一层层稻草，稻草平铺，层层交替，形成直角，使堆肥堆成长方形，边是垂直的。有些堆肥堆高四到六英尺，堆肥层厚约六英寸。
A few fields were still bearing their crop of soy beans planted in February between rows of grain, and the green herbage was being worked into the flooded soil, for the crop of rice. Much compost, brought to the fields, was stacked with layers of straw between, laid straight, the alternate courses at right angles, holding the piles in rectangular form with vertical sides, some of which were four to six feet high and the layers of compost about six inches thick.
到达炭治郎之前，我们经过一片区域，那里的栲木果园占据着稻田间的高地，就像中国浙江的桑园一样。从远处看，这些树和我们这里的苹果园很像。
Just before reaching Tanjiro a region is passed where orchards of the candleberry tree occupy high leveled areas between rice paddies, after the manner described for the mulberry orchards in Chekiang, China. These trees, when seen from a distance, have quite the appearance of our apple orchards.
在福冈试验站，我们了解到，稻田的通常耕深为3.5英寸到4.5英寸，但耕深一些产量会更高。五年试验的平均结果表明，7英寸到8英寸的耕深比通常深度可提高7%到10%的产量。在该县，从周边山地采摘的牧草被施用到稻田中，每英亩的绿重为3300磅到16520磅不等。根据分析，这些用量可以为稻田带来每英亩18到90磅的氮、12.4到63.2磅的钾和2.1到10.6磅的磷。
At the Fukuoka Experiment Station we learned that the usual depth of plowing for the rice fields is three and a half to four and a half inches, but that deeper plowing gives somewhat larger yields. As an average of five years trials, a depth of seven to eight inches increased the yield from seven to ten per cent over that of the usual depth. In this prefecture grass from the bordering hill lands is applied to the rice fields at rates ranging from 3300 to 16,520 pounds green weight per acre, and, according to analyses given, these amounts would carry to the fields from 18 to 90 pounds of nitrogen; 12.4 to 63.2 pounds of potassium, and 2.1 to 10.6 pounds of phosphorus per acre.
如果使用豆饼作为肥料，则每英亩的施用量为496磅，其中含有33.7磅氮、近5磅磷和7.4磅钾。土壤堆肥主要为7.5旱田施肥，必须等到其充分腐熟后才能进行。发酵至少需要60天，期间需要翻动三次以保持通气，这项工作在家里完成。在水源充足的稻田中使用时，堆肥的发酵程度要低一些。
Where bean cake is used as a fertilizer the applications may be at the rate of 496 pounds per acre, carrying 33.7 pounds of nitrogen, nearly 5 pounds of phosphorus and 7.4 pounds of potassium. The earth composts are chiefly 7.5 applied to the dry land fields and then only after they are well rotted, the fermentation being carried through at least sixty days, during which the material is turned three times for aeration, the work being done at the home. When used on the rice fields where water is abundant the composts are applied in a less fermented condition.
该县稻米产量最高时约为每英亩80蒲式耳，大麦产量甚至可能更高，因为两种作物同年种植，先稻后麦。在日本大部分地区，劳动人民的粮食大约是70%的裸大麦和30%的大米，两者的烹饪和使用方法相同。大麦的市场价值较低，因此可以把更大比例的大米作为经济作物出售。
The best yields of rice in this prefecture are some eighty bushels per acre, and crops of barley may even exceed this, the two crops being grown the same year, the rice following the barley. In most parts of Japan the grain food of the laboring people is about 70 per cent naked barley mixed with 30 per cent of rice, both cooked and used in the same manner. The barley has a lower market value and its use permits a larger share of the rice to be sold as a money crop.
每年都会对土壤进行各种作物的施肥，实验站为该州种植者推荐的大麦和水稻施肥配方如下表所示：
The soils are fertilized for each crop every year and the prescription for barley and rice recommended by the Experiment Station, for growers in this prefecture, is indicated by the following table:
裸大麦施肥。
FERTILIZATION FOR NAKED BARLEY.
水稻施肥。
FERTILIZATION FOR PADDY RICE.
遵循这些建议的地方，每年每英亩土地施用的肥料总量约为10吨，其中含有约150磅氮、44磅磷和100磅钾。与这些建议相关的作物产量车站田地的施用量为每英亩约四十九蒲式耳大麦和五十蒲式耳大米。
Where these recommendations are followed there is an annual application of fertilizer material which aggregates some ten tons per acre, carrying about 150 pounds of nitrogen, 44 pounds of phosphorus and 100 pounds of potassium. The crop yields which have been associated with these applications on the Station fields are about forty-nine bushels of barley and fifty bushels of rice per acre.
日本这一地区建议的轮作一般为五年，头两年种植小麦或大麦，夏季种植水稻；第三年冬季种植芸豆、 “粉红三叶草”（Astragalus sinicus）或其他豆科植物作为绿肥，夏季种植水稻；第四年冬季种植油菜，保留种子并将茎灰还田，或在极少数情况下将茎翻耕；第五年即最后一年冬季种植芸豆或温莎豆，在夏季种植水稻。这种轮作在这一地区农民的实践中还不普遍，他们选择油菜或大麦，并在二月份在行间种植温莎豆或大豆作为绿肥，以便在水稻长出时使用。
The general rotation recommended for this portion of Japan covers five years and consists of a crop of wheat or naked barley the first two years with rice as the summer crop; in the third year genge, “pink clover” (Astragalus sinicus) or some other legume for green manure is the winter crop, rice following in the summer; the fourth year rape is the winter crop, from which the seed is saved and the ash of the stems returned to the soil, or rarely the stems themselves may be turned under; on the fifth and last year of the rotation the broad kidney or Windsor bean is the winter crop, preceding the summer crop of rice. This rotation is not general yet in the practice of the farmers of the section, they choosing rape or barley and in February plant Windsor or soy beans between the rows for green manure to use when the rice comes on.
图 216、将绿色牧草种入水稻田中作为绿肥，为下一季水稻做准备。
Fig. 216.—Working green herbage into a flooded rice paddy for green manure, preparatory for the following crop of rice.
从我们的观察中可以明显看出，中国使用堆肥施肥比韩国或日本更为普遍和广泛，但为了鼓励生产和使用堆肥，该县和其他县都提供了补贴，允许每年向这些农民支付 2.50 美元他们按照指定的指示，在自己的土地上准备并使用占地二十至四十平方码的堆肥堆。
It was evident from our observations that the use of composts in fertilizing was very much more general and extensive in China than it was in either Korea or Japan, but, to encourage the production and use of compost fertilizers, this and other prefectures have provided subsidies which permit the payment of $2.50 annually to those farmers who prepare and use on their land a compost heap covering twenty to forty square yards, in accordance with specified directions given.
我们参观的那天，福冈农学院没有上课，因为通常是在最后一个插秧季结束后放假。图217展示了农学院和车站的主楼之一。图218、图219和图220按编号从左到右排列，构成了车站场地和建筑物的全景，并带有一丝美丽的自然风光。日本没有像美国的大学和车站那样，在建筑上花费巨资建造精美壮观的建筑。但在研究设备方面，无论是专业人员还是仪器设备，它们都与美国同类机构相媲美。当时，学校盛行宿舍制，食宿费用为每月8日元，相当于现在的4美元。8名学生被安排在一个宽敞的房间里，每人配有一张书桌。晚上，床是铺在地垫上的床垫，白天则紧凑地放在壁橱的架子上。
The agricultural college at Fukuoka was not in session the day of our visit, it being a holiday usually following the close of the last transplanting season. One of the main buildings of the station and college is seen in Fig. 217, and Figs. 218, 219 and 220, placed together from left to right in the order of their numbers, form a panoramic view of the station grounds and buildings with something of the beautiful landscape setting. There is nowhere in Japan the lavish expenditure of money on elaborate and imposing architecture which characterizes American colleges and stations, but in equipment for research work, both as to professional staff and appliances, they compare favorably with similar institutions in America. The dormitory system was in vogue in the college, providing room and board at eight yen per month or four dollars of our currency. Eight students were assigned to one commodious room, each provided with a study table, but beds were mattresses spread upon the matting floor at night and compactly stored on closet shelves during the day.
图 217——福冈实验站的主要建筑之一。
Fig. 217.—One of the main buildings of the Fukuoka Experiment Station.
图221中可以看到日本的犁，它与韩国的犁非常相似，右边的犁售价2.5日元，右边的犁售价2日元。借助单柄犁和右手握住的滑动杆，可以控制犁的行进方向，使犁向任意方向倾斜，将土壤抛向右侧或左侧。
The Japanese plow, which is very similar to the Korean type, may be seen in Fig. 221, the one on the right costing 2.5 yen and the other 2 yen. With the aid of the single handle and the sliding rod held in the right hand, the course of the plow is directed and the plow tilted in either direction, throwing the soil to the right or the left.
图 218.—日本福冈实验站场地和建筑物景观。
Fig. 218.—View of station grounds and buildings, Fukuoka Experiment Station, Japan.
图 219.—日本福冈实验站站场和建筑物景观。
Fig. 219.—View of station grounds and buildings, Fukuoka Experiment Station, Japan.
图 220.—日本福冈实验站站场和建筑物景观。
Fig. 220.—View of station grounds and buildings, Fukuoka Experiment Station, Japan.
图222显示了该站用于水稻育种试验和品种测试的苗床。虽然这些地块被水淹没，但靠近自由水道的边缘植株却比地块内的植株体型更大，颜色也更深绿，表明养分吸收得更好。但最奇怪的是，这些体型较强壮的植株从未用于移栽，因为它们的生长不如那些体型较弱的植株。
The nursery beds for rice breeding experiments and variety tests by this station are shown in Fig. 222. Although these plots are flooded the marginal plants, adjacent to the free water paths, were materially larger than those within and had a much deeper green color, showing better feeding, but what seemed most strange was the fact that these stronger plants are never used in transplanting, as they do not thrive as well as those less vigorous.
6月29日傍晚，我们离开九州岛，前往本州本岛，在下关等候早班火车。下关附近种植水稻的山谷比较宽阔，稻田最近都种得密集，行距约一英尺，稻田呈丘陵状排列。山地和丘陵地带树木茂密，底部大多是针叶树，但在山顶，尤其是在南坡，只有被砍伐用于施肥和喂养牲畜的草本植物才显得翠绿。许多矮树，通常不超过一英尺高，生长在最近砍伐过的土地上；高大纤细、优美的竹子沿途生长，为风景增添了奇妙的美感。一车车细长的竹子，底部直径两到四英寸，长二十英尺或更长，沿着通常状况良好、狭窄且很少有围栏的道路行驶，如图223所示。在稻田边缘和田间小路上，堆放着许多小堆稻草，等着被铺在插秧的稻行之间，然后踩入水中，再铺上泥土，以肥沃土壤。这里的农民和其他地方的农民一样，即使在稻田里，也必须与荸荠、各种野草以及我们常见的苋菜作斗争。大片的山区与可耕种的土地相比，山地面积较小，而且在整个旅程中，没有被水淹没、种植水稻的耕地面积相对较少。
We left the island of Kyushu in the evening of June 29th, crossing to the main island of Honshu, waiting in Shimonoseki for the morning train. The rice planted valleys near Shimonoseki were relatively broad and the paddies had all been recently set in close rows about a foot apart and in hills in the rows. Mountain and hill lands were closely wooded, largely with coniferous trees about the base but toward and at the summits, especially on the south slopes, they were green only with herbage cut for fertilizing and feeding stock. Many very small trees, often not more than one foot high, were growing on the recently cut-over areas; tall slender graceful bamboos clustered along the way and everywhere threw wonderful beauty into the landscape. Cartloads of their slender stems, two to four inches in diameter at the base and twenty or more feet long, were moving along the generally excellent, narrow, seldom fenced roads, such as seen in Fig. 223. On the borders and pathways between rice paddies many small stacks of straw were in waiting to be laid between the rows of transplanted rice, tramped beneath the water and overspread with mud to enrich the soil. The farmers here, as elsewhere, must contend against the scouring rush, varieties of grass and our common pigweeds, even in the rice fields. The large area of mountain and hill land compared with that which could be tilled, and the relatively small area of cultivated land not at this time under water and planted to rice persisted throughout the journey.
图 221.两台日本犁。
Fig. 221.—Two Japanese plows.
如果初到这片美丽土地的旅行者会感到单调，那一定是因为景色的快速变化和景观的拼凑方式一起，超越了有史以来最疯狂的拼布女人的尝试；这些碎片几乎从来都不大；它们形状各异，甚至皱巴巴的、揉皱的、以各种角度倾斜。这是一段旅程：过了哈布山，山麓地区森林茂密，大部分是针叶树。山谷极其狭窄，只有很小的区域可以种水稻。竹子生长在适宜的地方，我们经过一捆捆砍成炉子长度的木柴，如图224所示。然后，我们穿过一个几乎全是水稻的狭长山谷，然后是另一个不到半英里宽的山谷，就在到达阿萨之前。过了这里，田地的面积变得有限，边界上的低矮山丘最近被砍伐过，上面长出了新生长的小灌木，其中有很多松树。现在我们正处在一个狭窄的山谷中，两旁是小片稻田，或者说根本没有稻田。但在上午10:30到达小野田之前，我们又冲进了一个几乎平坦的山谷，田地主要集中在路的一侧，那里有大片稻田。继续骑行三分钟，我们再次来到没有田地的山丘之间，那里长满了松树和竹丛。再过四分钟，我们来到了小片稻田之间，10:35时，我们又经过了另一个缺口，正在穿过另一个山谷。稻田和荷塘点缀其间，但不到一分钟，群山便合拢，只剩下小路。10:37，我们沿着一条狭窄的山谷行驶，山谷中是梯田，许多山丘之间竹林间露出裸露的土壤，零星散布着松树和其他小树；然后，我们来到一片片覆盖着厚厚稻草的菜园。10:38，我们来到几座较高的山丘之间，田地狭窄，沿着小路延伸开来。两分钟后，我们越过了这些山丘，来到了低矮的山丘之间，田地呈梯田状。10:42，我们沿着长满稻米的平坦山谷飞驰，但很快又来到了裸露土壤、水土流失明显的山丘之间。这时，我们即将经过丰凯，沿着一条约60英尺宽的小溪前行，溪水稀疏，小块区域内耕地稀少。10:47，我们再次经过小路附近狭窄的稻田，人们正忙着用手除草，水深及膝。 10:53 我们进入了一个向南延伸至大海的更宽阔的山谷，但我们已经穿过了它一分钟后，我们又穿过了另一个缺口，10:55 时，我们穿过了一个更加宽阔的山谷，山谷里大部分种着稻田，但有些稻田里长着成排的灯心草，像水稻一样，成群结队地生长着。我们在这里经过大庸，再过去一点，就穿过了一条小溪，这条小溪被两岸建有堤坝隔开。11:17 时，我们离开了这片平原，进入了一个没有田地的狭窄山谷。日本的大部分农田都位于最狭窄的山谷中，这些山谷通常坡度很陡，突出的山脊使得边界和坡度极其不规则。
If there could be any monotony for the traveller new to this land of beauty it must result from the quick shifting of scenes and in the way the landscapes are pieced together, out-doing the craziest patchwork woman ever attempted; the bits are almost never large; they are of every shape, even puckered and crumpled and tilted at all angles. Here is a bit of the journey: Beyond Habu the foothills are thickly wooded, largely with conifers. The valley is extremely narrow with only small areas for rice. Bamboo are growing in congenial places and we pass bundles of wood cut to stove length, as seen in Fig. 224. Then we cross a long narrow valley practically all in rice, and then another not half a mile wide, just before reaching Asa. Beyond here the fields become limited in area with the bordering low hills recently cut over and a new growth springing up over them in the form of small shrubs among which are many pine. Now we are in a narrow valley between small rice fields or with none at all, but dash into one more nearly level with wide areas in rice chiefly on one side of the track just before reaching Onoda at 10 :30 A. M. and continuing three minutes ride beyond, when we are again between hills without fields and where the trees are pine with clumps of bamboo. In four minutes more we are among small rice paddies and at 10:35 have passed another gap and are crossing another valley checkered with rice fields and lotus ponds, but in one minute more the hills have closed in, leaving only room for the track. At 10:37 we are running along a narrow valley with its terraced rice paddies where many of the hills show naked soil among the bamboo, scattering pine and other small trees; then we are out among garden patches thickly mulched with straw. At 10:38 we are between higher hills with but narrow areas for rice stretching close along the track, but in two minutes these are passed and we are among low hills with terraced dry fields. At 10:42 we are spinning along the level valley with its rice, but are quickly out again among hills with naked soil where erosion was marked. This is just before passing Funkai where we are following the course of a stream some sixty feet wide with but little cultivated land in small areas. At 10:47 we are again passing narrow rice fields near the track where the people are busy weeding with their hands, half knee-deep in water. At 10 :53 we enter a broader valley stretching far to the south and seaward, but we had crossed it in one minute, shot through another gap, and at 10:55 are traversing a much broader valley largely given over to rice, but where some of the paddies were bearing matting rush set in rows and in hills after the manner of rice. It is here we pass Oyou and just beyond cross a stream confined between levees built some distance back from either bank. At 11:17 this plain is left and we enter a narrow valley without fields. Thus do most of the agricultural lands of Japan lie in the narrowest valleys, often steeply sloping, and into which jutting spurs create the greatest irregularity of boundary and slope.
图 222。福冈实验站的植物育种和品种试验苗圃水稻。
Fig. 222.—Plant breeding and variety test nursery rice plats, at Fukuoka Experiment Station.
图 223.——日本的公共高速公路。
Fig. 223.—Public highway in Japan.
图 224、将木材运往市场。日本。
Fig. 224.—Transporting wood to market. Japan.
这一天的行程用了14个小时，行程350英里，穿过一片风景秀丽、奇特的土地。这种美景除了多山的东方稻作地区外，在插秧季结束前的15天里，是其他任何地方都无法比拟的。这里既没有巍峨的高山，也没有宽阔的山谷，没有大河，只有寥寥几个湖泊；既没有崎岖裸露的岩石，也没有高大的森林，也没有延伸到地平线的广阔平原。但是，低矮、圆形、覆盖着土壤的山顶上长满了草本植物和幼林，山丘向下延伸，形成低矮的丘陵，而这些丘陵又延伸到狭窄陡峭的山谷，山谷沿着一系列水位阶地下降，如图225所示，汇入主要的河道。数以百万计的梯田，每一片都由凸起的边缘环绕，宛如一片银色的水面，点缀着一捆捆刚刚移栽的稻穗，精致地排列着，但既不会太密，也不会太高，也不会过于茂盛，以至于遮挡住水面，却又足以使水面泛起一层极其精致的绿意。长满青草的狭窄边缘将水洼中的水份聚拢在一起，将它们粘合成一系列精美绝伦的马赛克图案。这些图案大约由两千年前的工匠们雕刻在谷底，并由他们的后代历经岁月的维护，以便将山上的雨水和肥沃的土地以及来自天上的阳光转化为稻米的养料，滋养千家万户，支撑国家。两周前，这些景色的面貌截然不同，而两周后，倒映在水面上的水面便隐藏在不断生长、迅速蔓延的绿色之下，并将持续变化，直到秋天，届时，所有的土地都将覆盖着成熟的谷物。更增添了这一切的美感的是，只有在最宽阔的谷底，马赛克才保持水平，除了每个单元的水面，而且水面总是很小。有一次，我们骑马沿着一段下降的台阶前进，然后又沿着另一段上升的台阶穿过蜿蜒的山谷，消失在一个突出的山脊周围，在这一切的中间任何地方都可能矗立着日式小屋或别墅，水和生长的水稻几乎贴着墙壁，如图226所示，而附近的高台地上的水面可能与烟囱顶齐平。人们难道不好奇日本人热爱自己的国家，或者他们是天生的风景画家吗？
The journey of this day covered 350 miles in fourteen hours, all of the way through a country of remarkable and peculiar beauty which can be duplicated nowhere outside the mountainous, rice-growing Orient and there only during fifteen days closing the transplanting season. There were neither high mountains nor broad valleys, no great rivers and but few lakes; neither rugged naked rocks, tall forest trees nor wide level fields reaching away to unbroken horizons. But the low, rounded, soil-mantled mountain tops clothed in herbaceous and young forest growth fell everywhere into lower hills and these into narrow steep valleys which dropped by a series of water-level benches, as seen in Fig. 225, to the main river courses. Each one of these millions of terraces, set about by its raised rim, was a silvery sheet of water dotted in the daintiest manner with bunches of rice just transplanted, but not so close nor yet so high and over-spreading as to obscure the water, yet quite enough to impart to the surface a most delicate sheen of green; and the grass-grown narrow rims retaining the water in the basins, cemented them into series of the most superb mosaics, shaped into the valley bottoms by artizan artists perhaps two thousand years before and maintained by their descendants through all the years since, that on them the rains and fertility from the mountains and the sunshine from heaven might be transformed by the rice plant into food for the families and support for the nation. Two weeks earlier the aspect of these landscapes was very different, and two weeks later the reflecting water would lie hidden beneath the growing and rapidly developing mantle of green, to go on changing until autumn, when all would be overspread with the ripened harvest of grain. And what intensified the beauty of it all was the fact that only along the widest valley bottoms were the mosaics level, except the water surface of each individual unit and these were always small. At one time we were riding along a descending series of steps and then along another rising through a winding valley to disappear around a projecting spur, and anywhere in the midst of it all might be standing Japanese cottages or villas with the water and the growing rice literally almost against the walls, as seen in Fig. 226, while a near-by high terrace might hold its water on a level with the chimney-tops. Can one wonder that the Japanese loves his country or that they are born and bred landscape artists?
图 225.日本本乡和福山之间的梯田山谷。
Fig. 225.—Looking up a terraced valley between Hongo and Fukuyama, Japan.
图 226。一组房屋矗立在稻田中，位于梯田的边缘，四周环绕着水。
Fig. 226.—Group of houses standing in rice paddies, on edge of terraces, surrounded by water.
到达本乡之前，大片土地被铺成狭长、地势高耸的东西两面田地，田地上覆盖着草席，略微向南倾斜，离地面约两英尺，但向北敞开。我们不清楚这里种植的是什么作物，但由于当时正值盛夏炎热，草席显然是为了遮荫，我们怀疑种植的可能是人参。我们也正是在这里进入了蔺草种植区，这种植物在广岛县和冈山县广泛种植，但在帝国各地的种植面积较小。与水稻一样，蔺草首先在苗圃中种植，然后移植到稻田中，一英亩苗圃足以种植十英亩的稻田。蔺草被种植成二十到三十株，每行间隔七英寸，行间中心距六英寸。施肥量非常大，每英亩成本为 120 至 240 日元，或每年 60 至 120 美元，肥料包括豆饼和草木灰，或者近年来，有时使用硫酸铵氮肥和过磷酸钙。作物所需肥料的大约10%在翻耕时施用，其余部分则随着季节的推移不时施用。同一块地里可以每年种植两茬灯心草，也可以与水稻轮作，但最广泛的种植方式是种植在排水不畅、不太适合种植其他作物的土地上。图45和图227中可以看到灯心草田与水稻轮作，远处的海岸边是政府的盐田。
Just before reaching Hongo there were considerable areas thrown into long narrow, much raised, east and west beds under covers of straw matting inclined at a slight angle toward the south, some two feet above the ground but open toward the north. What crop may have been grown here we did not learn but the matting was apparently intended for shade, as it was hot midsummer weather, and we suspect it may have been ginseng. It was here, too, that we came into the region of the culture of matting rush, extensively grown in Hiroshima and Okayama prefectures, but less extensively all over the empire. As with rice, the rush is first grown in nursery beds from which it is transplanted to the paddies, one acre of nursery supplying sufficient stock for ten acres of field. The plants are set twenty to thirty stalks in a hill in rows seven inches apart with the hills six inches from center to center in the row. Very high fertilization is practiced, costing from 120 to 240 yen per acre, or $60 to $120 annually, the fertilizer consisting of bean cake and plant ashes, or in recent years, sometimes of sulphate of ammonia for nitrogen, and superphosphate of lime. About ten per cent of the amount of fertilizer required for the crop is applied at the time of fitting the ground, the balance being administered from time to time as the season advances. Two crops of the rush may be taken from the same ground each year or it is grown in rotation with rice, but most extensively on the lands less readily drained and not so well suited for other crops. Fields of the rush, growing in alternation with rice, are seen in Fig. 45, and in Fig. 227, with the Government salt fields lying along the seashore beyond.
图 227、田野里长满了灯芯草，田里栽种着新近移植的水稻，背景是政府的盐田。
Fig. 227.—Fields of matting rush with recently transplanted rice, and Government salt fields in the background.
灯芯草生长最旺盛时可高达三英尺以上，市场价格随茎长而变化。在最佳栽培条件下，每英亩干茎产量可达6.5吨，但平均产量较低，1905年的平均产量为8531磅，种植面积为9655英亩。产品价值在每英亩120至200美元之间。
With the most vigorous growth the rush attain a hight exceeding three feet and the market price varies materially with the length of the stems. Good yields, under the best culture, may be as high as 6.5 tons per acre of the dry stems but the average yield is less, that of 1905 being 8531 pounds, for 9655 acres. The value of the product ranges from $120 to $200 per acre.
图 228 一群日本女孩正在玩花牌游戏，她们通常坐在铺着垫子的地板上。
Fig. 228.—Group of Japanese girls playing the game of flower cards, in the usual attitude of sitting on the matting-covered floor.
图 229——日本旅馆装修精美的客房内部景观，餐点在铺着草席的地板上供应，床上也铺着床。
Fig. 229.—Interior view of a well furnished guest room in a Japanese inn, where the meals are served on the matting floor and the bed is laid.
用这种材料可以编织出标准尺寸的垫子，铺在垫子上，装饰地板，而地板是日本所有阶层的座位，其使用方式如图 228和图 229所示，图 229 是日本一流旅馆中一间设备齐全的客房，用天然的未上漆的木材装饰，墙壁上装有半透明的滑动纸板，可以通向门廊、走廊或其他房间；它的花束可能是由一根形状优美的紫叶枫树枝组成的，将切口烧焦以保持更长时间的新鲜，放在花瓶里的水中。
It is from this material that mats are woven in standard sizes, to be laid over padding, upholstering the floors which are the seats of all classes in Japan, used in the manner seen in Fig. 228 and in Fig. 229, which is a completely furnished guest room in a first class Japanese inn, finished in natural unvarnished wood, with walls of sliding panels of translucent paper, which may open upon a porch, into a hallway or into another apartment; and with its bouquet, which may consist of a single large shapely branch of the purple leaved maple, having the cut end charred to preserve it fresh for a longer time, standing in water in the vase.
“我听说过两个小姑娘，她们个个都挺有品味，
“Two little maids I’ve heard of, each with a pretty taste,
他有两个小房间需要修理，而且没有一小时可以浪费。
Who had two little rooms to fix and not an hour to waste.
他们相隔八千英里，却在同一天
Eight thousand miles apart they lived, yet on the selfsame day
一个在日光的狭窄街道上，另一个在百老汇，
The one in Nikko’s narrow streets, the other on Broadway,
她们出发了，每个快乐的少女都渴望找到自己的心愿，
They started out, each happy maid her heart’s desire to find,
并按照她的想法布置她自己心爱的房间。
And her own dear room to furnish just according to her mind.
当爱丽丝去购物时，她买了一张黄铜床，
When Alice went a-shopping, she bought a bed of brass,
一张书桌、几把椅子和其他东西，还有一块漂亮的玻璃
A bureau and some chairs and things and such a lovely glass
映照着她娇小的身影——旁边是两个烛台——
To reflect her little figure—with two candle brackets near—
还有一张小梳妆台，她说，简直太贵了！
And a little dressing table that she Said was simply dear!
一个低矮的书架用来放她的书，一个小瓷器架，
A book shelf low to hold her books, a little china rack,
当然，还有一套衣柜和许多小古董；
And then, of course, a bureau set and lots of bric-a-brac;
精致的小写字台，配有她自己的配件
A dainty little escritoire, with fixings all her own
为了方便她，还给她准备了一部小电话。
And just for her convenience, too, a little telephone.
她买了一些东方地毯和马德拉斯窗帘，
Some oriental rugs she got, and curtains of madras,
里面有“狡猾”的蕾丝，可以抵着玻璃；
With ‘cunning’ ones of lace inside, to go against the glass;
然后是一张沙发，一张可爱的沙发，上面有柔软的垫子，
And then a couch, a lovely one, with cushions soft to crush,
还有四十多个枕头，有亚麻布、丝绸和毛绒的；
And forty pillows, more or less, of linen, silk and plush;
除此之外，我还不知道还有什么装饰品，
Of all the ornaments besides I couldn’t tell the half,
但只要没有其他东西，她就会贴上一张照片。
But wherever there was nothing else, she stuck a photograph.
然后，当一切都结束后，她轻轻叹了口气，
And then, when all was finished, she sighed a little sigh,
她环顾四周，眼中流露出一丝悲伤：
And looked about with just a shade of sadness in her eye:
“因为它需要一尊小雕像——一株蕨类植物——一只银鹳——
‘For it needs a statuette or so—a fern—a silver stork—
哦，随便什么，只要填满它就行了！”纽约的爱丽丝说道。
Oh, something, just to fill it up!’ said Alice of New York.
日本小近江去购物的时候，pitapat，
When little Oumi of Japan went shopping, pitapat,
她买了一把纸扇和一张小睡垫；
She bought a fan of paper and a little sleeping mat;
她在窗边的花瓶里插了一朵百合花，
She set beside the window a lily in a vase,
满怀疑虑地环顾着她美丽的脸庞：
And looked about with more than doubt upon her pretty face:
“真的吗——你不这么认为吗？——有百合花和扇子。
‘For, really—don’t you think so?—with the lily and the fan.
“有点拥挤啊！”来自日本的近江说道。
It’s a little overcrowded!’ said Oumi of Japan.”
（玛格丽特·约翰逊，《圣尼古拉斯杂志》）
(Margaret Johnson in St. Nicholas Magazine)
1906年，日本农村家庭编织了14,497,058张此类地垫，以及6,628,772张其他类型的席子，总价值2,815,040美元。此外，当年在同一片土地上，用生长在7,657英亩土地上的优质灯心草，还生产了用于出口贸易的花式席子，价值2,274,131美元。以下是土地产出物和生产过程中投入的劳动力的总价值，在上述地区，每英亩土地的总价值为664美元。
In the rural homes of Japan during 1906 there were woven 14,497,058 sheets of these floor mats and 6,628,772 sheets of other matting, having a combined value of $2,815,040, and in addition, from the best quality of rush grown upon the same ground, aggregating 7657 acres that year, there were manufactured for the export trade, fancy mattings having the value of $2,274,131. Here is a total value, for the product of the soil and for the labor put info the manufacture, amounting to $664 per acre for the area named.
在小野教授主持的明石农业实验站，我们看到了日本的一些果树栽培方法。他正在进行实验，目的是改进梨树抽穗和整形的方法，这在第22页有所提及。他们还研究了用纸袋覆盖水果的优缺点，纸袋的例子如图6和图7所示。我们参观时，这些纸袋是用妇女们剪、折、粘的旧报纸做成的。果园采用裸栽，每年施用两次由鱼粪和过磷酸钙组成的肥料，每英亩总计花费24美元。
At the Akashi agricultural experiment station, under the Directorship of Professor Ono, we saw some of the methods of fruit culture as practiced in Japan. He was conducting experiments with the object of improving methods of heading and training pear trees, to which reference was made on page 22. A study was also being made of the advantages and disadvantages associated with covering the fruit with paper bags, examples of which are seen in Figs. 6 and 7. The bags were being made at the time of our visit, from old newspapers cut, folded and pasted by women. Naked cultivation was practiced in the orchard, and fertilizers consisting of fish guano and superphosphate of lime were being applied twice each year in amounts aggregating a cost of twenty-four dollars per acre.
本地品种的梨园，如果结果良好，每株梨的收益为150日元，欧洲品种的梨园每株梨的收益为200日元，相当于每英亩300至400美元。在中国广泛种植的碧波梨也在这里种植，每英亩的收益约为320美元。
Pear orchards of native varieties, in good bearing, yield returns of 150 yen per tan, and those of European varieties, 200 yen per tan, which is at the rate of $300 and $400 per acre. The bibo so extensively grown in China was being cultivated here also and was yielding about $320 per acre.
正是在这里，我们第一次接触到一种牛蒡的种植，这种牛蒡从种子开始种植，在气候适宜的地方，每季可以收获三茬，或者作为复种种植系统中的三茬之一。牛蒡种植以根茎为生，每英亩产值40至50美元。其中一茬于3月播种，7月1日即可收获。
It was here that we first met the cultivation of a variety of burdock grown from the seed, three crops being taken each season where the climate is favorable, or as one of three in the multiple crop system. It is grown for the root, yielding a crop valued at $40 to $50 per acre. One crop, planted in March, was being harvested July 1st.
我们乘坐早班火车前往明石，途中看到一长队由牛、马或人力拉着的货车沿着与铁路平行的乡村道路行驶，货车上满载着神户市的垃圾，运往田野的目的地，有些路程长达十二英里，在那里以每吨 54 美分到 1.63 美元的价格出售。
During our ride to Akashi on the early morning train we passed long processions of carts drawn by cattle, horses or by men, moving along the country road which paralleled the railway, all loaded with the waste of the city of Kobe, going to its destination in the fields, some of it a distance of twelve miles, where it was sold at from 54 cents to $1.63 per ton.
我们从下关到大阪的路上，沿途多处都观察到有人在稻田里施用熟石灰。但在兵库县（车站所在地）的稻田里，这种做法在1901年就被禁止了，除非车站当局下令，或者土壤呈酸性，或者需要防治虫害。在此之前，农民习惯于每英亩施用3至5吨熟石灰，每吨售价4.84美元。最初的限制性立法允许每827磅有机肥搭配82磅石灰，但由于农民坚持使用量过大，最终才最终全面禁止。
At several places along our route from Shimonoseki to Osaka we had observed the application of slacked lime to the water of the rice fields, but in this prefecture, Hyogo, where the station is located, its use was prohibited in 1901, except under the direction of the station authorities, where the soil was acid or where it was needed on account of insect troubles. Up to this time it had been the custom of farmers to apply slacked lime at the rate of three to five tons per acre, paying for it $4.84 per ton. The first restrictive legislation permitted the use of 82 pounds of lime with each 827 pounds of organic manure, but as the farmers persisted in using much larger quantities, complete prohibition was resorted to.
已提及鼓励使用堆肥的补贴，并在本州为每个县的最佳堆肥堆颁发奖项，由一个委员会进行评审。每个县获得四个最高奖项的堆肥将与其他县的堆肥竞争，角逐由另一个委员会颁发的州级奖项。
Reference has been made to subsidies encouraging the use of composts, and in this prefecture prizes are awarded for the best compost heaps in each county, examinations being made by a committee. The composts receiving the four highest awards in each county are allowed to compete with those in other counties for a prefectural prize awarded by another committee.
在兵库县，水稻之后种植的“粉红三叶草”是一种绿肥作物，在适宜的条件下，每英亩可产出 20 吨绿色产品，通常施用面积为其生长面积的三倍左右，即每英亩 6.6 吨，茬和根可作为作物生长的土地。
The “pink clover” grown in Hyogo after rice, as a green manure crop, yields under favorable conditions twenty tons of the green product per acre, and is usually applied to about three times the area upon which it grew, at the rate of 6.6 tons per acre, the stubble and roots serving for the ground upon which the crop grew.
7月3日，我们从大阪出发，向南经堺市到达和歌山，然后向东向北到达奈良实验站。经过前两个站后，这条路穿过一片非常平坦、耕作良好的菜园，黄瓜在棚架上生长，许多南瓜盛开着花朵，田地里种植着芋头、生姜和许多其他蔬菜。过了滨寺，大片平坦的沙地上长满了松树，中间种植着水稻，种植者们使用图14所示的旋转除草机。大津有大片水稻种植区，但这里用的是短柄爪式除草机，上茬作物的残茬被收集成小堆，如图230所示，这些残茬稍后会被仔细地分散到泥土下面进行耕作。
On July 3rd we left Osaka, going south through Sakai to Wakayama, thence east and north to the Nara Experiment Station. After passing the first two stations the route lay through a very flat, highly cultivated garden section with cucumbers trained on trellises, many squash in full bloom, with fields of taro, ginger and many other vegetables. Beyond Hamadera considerable areas of flat sandy land had been set close with pine, but with intervening areas in rice, where the growers were using the revolving weeder seen in Fig. 14. At Otsu broad areas are in rice but here worked with the short handled claw weeders, and stubble from a former crop had been drawn together into small piles, seen in Fig. 230, which later would be carefully distributed and worked beneath the mud.
图 230、旧茬的分配以及将其埋入水和淤泥中用作肥料。
Fig. 230.—Distribution of old stubble and the working of it beneath the water and mud to serve as fertilizer.
这一地区的大部分山地都生长着松树，这些松树都归私人所有，每隔十年、二十年或二十五年就会砍伐一次，然后就地卖给那些前来砍伐的人，一匹马可以卖四十钱，正如第 159 页所述。
Much of the mountain lands in this region, growing pine, is owned by private parties and the growth is cut at intervals of ten, twenty or twenty-five years, being sold on the ground to those who will come and cut it at a price of forty sen for a one-horse load, as already described, page 159.
从这里出发，沿着地势上升较快的木井川河谷向上，人们用各种不同的抽水方式将大量的水输送到稻田里，其中有各种各样的抽水车；偶尔也用牛拉的动力泵；最常见的是脚踏式抽水车，人们在轮子上行走，用一根长杆保持平衡，就像在田野里看到的那样（图231）。这里的山坡最近被砍伐了一大片，在版画中可以看到这片区域。在这条路线上的桥本附近，图 151和152中再现的两处美丽景色就是在这里拍摄的。
The course from here was up the rather rapidly rising Kiigawa valley where much water was being applied to the rice fields by various methods of pumping, among them numerous current wheels; an occasional power-pump driven by cattle; and very commonly the foot-power wheel where the man walks on the circumference, steadying himself with a long pole, as seen in the field, Fig. 231. It was here that a considerable section of the hill slope had been very recently cut over, the area showing light in the engraving. It was in the vicinity of Hashimoto on this route, too, that the two beautiful views reproduced in Figs. 151 and 152 were taken.
图 231——日本桥本附近，用日本圆周脚踏水车灌溉。
Fig. 231.—Irrigating with the Japanese circumferential foot-power water wheel, near Hashimoto, Japan.
实验站了解到，奈良县人口558,314，耕地面积107,574英亩，其中三分之二用于种植水稻。该省还有大约一千座灌溉水库，平均水深8英尺。除了雨水外，稻田还能获得16.32英寸的灌溉水。
At the experiment station it was learned that within the prefecture of Nara, having a population of 558,314, and 107,574 acres of cultivated land, two-thirds of this was in paddy rice. Within the province there are also about one thousand irrigation reservoirs with an average depth of eight feet. The rice fields receive 16.32 inches of irrigation water in addition to the rain.
在未开垦的山地中，约有2500英亩的土地为田地提供了绿肥。第211页已提到了用于肥料的堆肥生产。该州每年种植两种作物的绿肥推荐用量如下：
Of the uncultivated hill lands, some 2500 acres contribute green manure for fertilization of fields. Reference has been made to the production of compost for fertilizers on page 211. The amount recommended in this prefecture as a yearly application for two crops grown is:
根据第 214 页的表格，这些数量几乎足够生产三十蒲式耳的小麦，然后是三十蒲式耳的大米，磷过量，而钾则不够，假设没有从其他来源获得。
These amounts, on the basis of the table, p. 214, are nearly sufficient for a crop of thirty bushels of wheat, followed by one of thirty bushels of rice, the phosphorus being in excess and the potassium not quite enough, supposing none to be derived from other sources.
我们下榻的奈良旅馆是日本一家美丽的客栈。房间通向二楼的阳台，从阳台可以俯瞰一个美丽的小湖，湖面约20英尺长，80英尺宽，位于一个略大于100英尺长，200英尺宽的小公园内。湖岸绿草如茵，岩石嶙峋，树木灌木丛生，错落有致，展现出大自然的野趣和美感：竹子、柳树、冷杉、松树、雪松、红叶枫、梓树等等。沿着湖岸，一条林间小径蜿蜒而过，人迹罕至，从旅馆通往一间半隐半现的小屋，显然是女仆的住处，因为她们经常来来往往。或许，日本人是如何将这种野性之美带到家门口的？从图232可以看出，这是一个比所描述的规模更小的停车效应的例子。
At the Nara hotel, one of the beautiful Japanese inns where we stopped, our room opened upon a second story veranda from which one looked down upon a beautiful, tiny lakelet, some twenty by eighty feet, within a diminutive park scarcely more than one hundred by two hundred feet, and the lakelet had its grassy, rocky banks over-hung with trees and shrubs planted in all the wild disorder and beauty of nature; bamboo, willow, fir, pine, cedar, red-leaved maple, catalpa, with other kinds, and through these, along the shore, wound a woodsy, well trodden, narrow footpath leading from the inn to a half hidden cottage apparently quarters for the maids, as they were frequently passing to and fro. A suggestion of how such wild beauty is brought right to the very doors in Japan may be gained from Fig. 232, which is an instance of parking effect on a still smaller scale than that described.
7月6日早上，我们每辆人力车都载着两个人，从八阿米旅馆出发，前往京都实验站。实验站位于市区西南约两英里处。我们一踏上乡间小路，就发现自己身旁挤满了车夫，每人拉着六个带盖的大容器，每个容器大约有10加仑的容量，里面装满了城市垃圾。到达实验站之前，我们已经经过了52辆这样的垃圾车。返回途中，这支队伍仍然朝着同一个方向前进，我们又经过了61辆。因此，在至少五个小时里，在这段通往乡村、远离城市的道路上，已经运送了不少于90吨的垃圾；其他道路上也运送着类似的垃圾。这些货车以及由马和牛拉的货车都配备了长类似于第 197 页图108 所示的齿条，当负载不足以覆盖整个长度时，它总是被均等地分配并放置在两端附近，从而利用身体的弹性来产生弹簧的效果，减少吃水和磨损。
On the morning of July 6th, with two men for each of our rickshas, we left the Yaami hotel for the Kyoto Experiment station, some two miles to the southwest of the city limits. As soon as we had entered upon the country road we found ourselves in a procession of cart men each drawing a load of six large covered receptacles of about ten gallons capacity, and filled with the city’s waste. Before reaching the station we had passed fifty-two of these loads, and on our return the procession was still moving in the same direction and we passed sixty-one others, so that during at least five hours there had moved over this section of road leading into the country, away from the city, not less than ninety tons of waste; along other roadways similar loads were moving. These freight carts and those drawn by horses and bullocks were all provided with long racks similar to that illustrated in Fig. 108, page 197, and when the load is not sufficient to cover the full length it is always divided equally and placed near each end, thus taking advantage of the elasticity of the body to give the effect of springs, lessening the draft and the wear and tear.
图 232. 日本家居之美。
Fig. 232.—Beauty at home in Japan.
沿着乡村道路进入城市的最常见的货物之一是来自山地的燃料，如图224所示，用劈开的木棍捆成捆；树枝捆成的捆，长度为24到30英寸，有时甚至达到4到6英尺；还有用1.5到6英寸长的树干和茎秆制成的木炭，用草席包起来。日本使用的役畜大多是母牛、公牛或种马；至少我们看到的公牛和阉马很少。
One of the most common commodities coming into the city along the country roads was fuel from the hill lands, in split sticks tied in bundles as represented in Fig. 224; as bundles of limbs twenty-four to thirty inches, and sometimes four to six feet, long; and in the form of charcoal made from trunks and stems one and a half inches to six inches long, and baled in straw matting. Most of the draft animals used in Japan are either cows, bulls or stallions; at least we saw very few oxen and few geldings.
图 233 京都丸屋网公园的一棵非常古老的樱花树，树干被支撑起来以防止被风吹伤。
Fig. 233.—Very old cherry tree in Maruyaami park, Kyoto, with its limbs supported to guard against injury from winds.
早在1895年，政府就开始采取明确措施，致力于改善马匹养殖，并当时任命了一个委员会来制定全面的计划。这最终导致了一系列渐进式的措施，并于1906年达到顶峰。马匹管理局的职责期限为三十年，分为两个阶段：第一阶段十八年，第二阶段十二年。第一阶段，政府将购置1500匹种马，分发给全国各地的私人使用；第二阶段，政府将彻底更新马匹，并让民众熟悉正确的管理方法，以便将一切事务交由他们自己处理。
As early as 1895 the Government began definite steps looking to the improvement of horse breeding, appointing at that time a commission to devise comprehensive plans. This led to progressive steps finally culminating in 1906 in the Horse Administration Bureau, whose duties were to extend over a period of thirty years, divided into two intervals, the first, eighteen and the second, twelve years. During the first interval it is contemplated that the Government shall acquire 1,500 stallions to be distributed throughout the country for the use of private individuals, and during the second period it is the expectation that the system will have completely renovated the stock and familiarized the people with proper methods of management so that matters may be left in their hands.
图234、欣赏樱花。
Fig. 234.—Admiring cherry blossoms.
由于我们的主要目的和有限的时间要求我们全神贯注于农业事务，其中又以人们长期以来的习俗为主，因此我们几乎没有时间观光，甚至没有时间研究为引进改进的农业方法和做法所做的努力。不过，在京都这座古老的城市——从公元800年到1868年，这里一直是天皇的宫廷所在地——我们确实短暂地参观了清水寺。清水寺位于八阿米酒店以南约300码处，面对着丸八阿米公园，公园里有一棵百年老樱花树，树干直径超过4英尺，枝条宽阔，现在为了防止意外，人们用很多东西支撑着它，如图233所示。在日本，樱花树被广泛用于观赏，效果惊人。樱花树本身不能结出可食用的果实，但盛开时非常美丽，如图234所示。这些树木是由日本政府运送到该国供华盛顿使用的，但第一批树木被销毁了，因为它们被发现受到侵染并对当地树木构成威胁。
As our main purpose and limited time required undivided attention to agricultural matters, and of these to the long established practices of the people, we could give but little time to sight-seeing or even to a study of the efforts being made for the introduction of improved agricultural methods and practices. But in the very old city of Kyoto, which was the seat of the Mikado’s court from before 800 A. D. until 1868, we did pay a short visit to the Kiyomizu temple, situated some three hundred yards south from the Yaami hotel, which faces the Maruyaami park with its centuries-old giant cherry tree, having a trunk of more than four feet through and wide spreading branches, now much propped up to guard against accident, as seen in Fig. 233. These cherry trees are very extensively used for ornamental purposes in Japan with striking effect. The tree does not produce an edible fruit, but is very beautiful when in full bloom, as may be seen from Fig. 234. It was these trees that were sent by the Japanese government to this country for use at Washington but the first lot were destroyed because they were found to be infested and threatened danger to native trees.
图 235——京都清水寺的入口。
Fig. 235.—Entrance way to Kiyomizu temple, Kyoto.
京都周围景色秀丽，选址之时似乎颇具慧眼，因其极富表现力，可营造出宏大的景观效果。这些景观的丰盈与丰富，即使是最伟大的艺术家也乐于展现。我们尤其想到的是清水寺，或者更确切地说，是那片覆盖整个寺院、枝繁叶茂的奇丽景象。这些树木枝叶茂盛，蔓延至山顶，将寺院半掩于山脚下。任何文字、画笔、摄影都无法传达这种效果。只有亲眼目睹，才能感受到它所蕴含的影响力。当天，数十位来宾，有老有少，几乎全是日本人，而且当天他们中更多的是来自贫困阶层而非富裕阶层，他们都像我们一样，不情愿地退下，回首往事，仿佛被这幅景象深深吸引。这座山峦的壮丽景色如此震撼人心，以至于沿着通往寺庙入口的狭窄街道，街道两旁林立着商店（如图235所示），在最不可能的地方，一些细微的公园景观也蓬勃发展起来。当我和Tokito教授离开时，我们偶然看到六个衣着粗糙的小男孩在沙地上布置了一个精致的小公园，足足有九英尺长，十二英尺宽。他们肯定已经忙活了几个小时，因为公园里有池塘、桥梁、小山丘和峡谷，还有许多长满青苔的植物和其他小绿植。他们如此专注于自己的工作，以至于我们站在那里观察了整整两分钟，才引起他们的注意，而他们中年龄最大的肯定还不到十岁。
Kyoto stands amid surroundings of wonderful beauty, the site apparently having been selected with rare acumen for its possibilities in large landscape effects, and these have been developed with that fullness and richness which the greatest artists might be content to approach. We are thinking particularly of the Kiyomizu-dera, or rather of the marvelous beauty of tree and foliage which has overgrown it and swept far up and over the mountain summit, leaving the temple half hidden at the base. No words, no brush, no photographic art can transfer the effect. One must see to feel the influence for which it was created, and scores of people, very old and very young, nearly all Japanese, and more of them on that day from the poorer rather than from the well-to-do class, were there, all withdrawing reluctantly, like ourselves, looking backward, under the spell. So potent and impressive was that something from the great overshadowing beauty of the mountain, that all along up the narrow, shop-lined street leading to the gateway of the temple, seen in Fig. 235, the tiniest bits of park effect were flourishing in the most impossible situations; and as Professor Tokito and myself were coming away we chanced upon six little roughly dressed lads laying out in the sand an elaborate little park, quite nine by twelve feet. They must have been at it hours, for there were ponds, bridges, tiny hills and ravines and much planting in moss and other little greens. So intent on their task were they that we stood watching full two minutes before our presence attracted their attention, and yet the oldest of the group must have been under ten years of age.
图 236、清水寺和远处树木繁茂的山坡的景色，显示了长期受到保护后森林会变得多么茂密。
Fig. 236.—View of Kiyomizu temple and the wooded mountain slope rising beyond, showing how dense the forest growth may become when long protected.
图 237。京都清水寺的日本公园座椅。
Fig. 237.—Japanese park seats at Kiyomizu-dera, Kyoto.
图236中可以看到寺庙的一部分被遮挡住的景象，茂密的山林在寺庙上方和背后蔓延。同样，在寺庙内部，当农民男女来到神龛前，抓住长长的绳环，将沉重的绳结放在大锣的前面，摇晃着敲响三声，宣告他们来到神面前，然后跪下祈祷时，人们一定会注意到他们脸上和举止中流露出的深切诚挚和信仰，而他们却忘却了其他一切。没有哪个基督徒比他们更虔诚，人们甚至怀疑是否有哪个基督徒在祈祷后能比他们更加振奋。谁会相信他们没有透过图像看到与永恒精神的交流呢？
One partly hidden view of the temple is seen in Fig. 236, the dense mountain verdure rising above and beyond it. And then too, within the temple, as the peasant men and women came before the shrine and grasped the long depending rope knocker, with the heavy knot in front of the great gong, swinging it to strike three rings, announcing their presence before their God, then kneeling to offer prayers, one could not fail to realize the deep sincerity and faith expressed in face and manner, while they were oblivious to all else. No Christian was ever more devout and one may well doubt if any ever arose from prayer more uplifted than these. Who need believe they did not look beyond the imagery and commune with the Eternal Spirit?
图 238、日本鸢尾花园。
Fig. 238.—Iris garden, Japan.
图 237为同一寺庙的第三个视图，显示了树荫下的休息场所，这些场所可用作我们公园的草坪座椅。
A third view of the same temple, showing resting places beneath the shade, which serve the purpose of lawn seats in our parks, is seen in Fig. 237.
图 239——日本街头卖花人。
Fig 239.—Street flower-vender, Japan.
日本人天生具有高度的审美感，他们是美的科学大师，他们之中不乏能够创作出令人印象深刻、效果显著作品的艺术家，这一点从无数方面都可以看出来，图 238中的鸢尾花园就是其中之一。人们可以从芦苇中看到鸢尾的生长，它们让鸢尾感到自在；从看似倒在跑道上的圆木的不起眼的外形中；从被狠狠敲打过的狭窄的小路和老松树酸痛的脚趾，诉说着来来往往的数百人；从女士们的衣着和姿势中可以看出，可以肯定，摄影师感受到了他所看到的一切，并如此准确地固定下来。
That a high order of the esthetic sense is born to the Japanese people; that they are masters of the science of the beautiful; and that there are artists among them capable of effective and impressive results, is revealed in a hundred ways, and one of these is the iris garden of Fig. 238. One sees it here in the bulrushes which make the iris feel at home; in the unobtrusive semblance of a log that seems to have fallen across the run; in the hard beaten narrow path and the sore toes of the old pine tree, telling of the hundreds that come and go; it is seen in the dress and pose of the ladies, and one may be sure the photographer felt all that he saw and fixed so well.
图239中画的是玛格丽特·约翰逊看到的卖近江百合的商贩。那里还有另一个人在用一束花交换东西，因此，在我们奈良旅馆的房间里，有一个人卖掉了那枝红枫叶。他的花架用普通的扁担沿着街道吊着。
The vender of Oumi’s lily that Margaret Johnson saw, is in Fig. 239. There another is bartering for a spray of flowers, and thus one sold the branch of red maple leaves in our room at the Nara inn. His floral stands are borne along the streets pendant from the usual carrying pole.
从京都实验站返回京都时，路过几片日本靛蓝田。这些靛蓝田在普通的稻作条件下生长在水中。图240就是其中一片。这种植物名为蓼蓝（Poligonum tinctoria），是蓼科植物蓼的近亲。在苯胺染料和茜素染料进口之前（1907年，进口量分别为160,558磅和7,170,320磅），靛蓝的种植面积远大于现在。1897年，靛蓝干叶产量为160,460,000磅；但到了1906年，产量下降到58,696,000磅，其中45%产自四国岛东部的德岛县。该州人口为 707,565 人，即每 159,450 英亩耕地中有 4.4 人，但其中 19,969 英亩用于种植靛蓝，即每产粮英亩土地上居住着 5 个人以上。
When returning to the city from the Kyoto Experiment Station several fields of Japanese indigo were passed, growing in water under the conditions of ordinary rice culture, Fig. 240 being a view of one of these. The plant is Poligonum tinctoria, a close relative of the smartweed. Before the importation of aniline and alizarin dyes, which amounted in 1907 to 160,558 pounds and 7,170,320 pounds respectively, the cultivation of indigo was much more extensive than at present, amounting in 1897 to 160,460,000 pounds of the dried leaves; but in 1906 the production had fallen to 58,696,000 pounds, forty-five per cent of which was grown in the prefecture of Tokushima in the eastern part of the island of Shikoku. The population of this prefecture is 707,565, or 4.4 people to each of the 159,450 acres of cultivated field, and yet 19,969 of these acres bore the indigo crop, leaving more than five people to each food-producing acre.
这种作物的植株在二月开始在苗床中生长，五月移植。第一茬作物在六月底或七月初收割，届时田地再次施肥，茬地会长出新芽，并在八月底或九月初进行第二茬收割。一茬大麦可能先于一茬靛蓝种植，也可能在一茬水稻之后种植靛蓝。这种做法，加上对每种作物施肥量较高，对提供必要的食物大有裨益。人口稠密也使得靛蓝生产成为农民的家庭产业，使他们能够用家庭的闲置劳动力换取现金。1907年，减少种植面积所产出的制成品价值1,304,610美元，其中45%来自德岛县农村人口的产出，他们可以用这些产出换取大米和其他生活必需品。1907年，该县的稻田面积为73,816英亩，产量达114,380,000磅，平均每人（男女老少）产出超过161磅；另有65,665英亩种植其他作物。此外，该县还有874,208英亩山地和丘陵地带，可提供燃料、薪灰和绿肥（用作肥料）；提供径流水（用于灌溉）；提供木材，并提供田间不需要的有偿服务。
The plants for this crop are started in nursery beds in February and transplanted in May, the first crop being cut the last of June or first of July, when the fields are again fertilized, the stubble throwing out new shoots and yielding a second cutting the last of August or early September. A crop of barley may have preceded one of indigo, or the indigo may be set following a crop of rice. Such practice, with the high fertilization for every crop, goes a long way toward supplying the necessary food. The dense population, too, has permitted the manufacture of the indigo as a home industry among the farmers, enabling them to exchange the spare labor of the family for cash. The manufactured product from the reduced planting in 1907 was worth $1,304,610, forty-five per cent of which was the output of the rural population of the prefecture of Tokushima, which they could exchange for rice and other necessaries. The land in rice in this prefecture in 1907 was 73,816 acres, yielding 114,380,000 pounds, or more than 161 pounds to each man, woman and child, and there were 65,665 acres bearing other crops. Besides this there are 874,208 acres of mountain and hill land in the prefecture which supply fuel, fuel ashes and green manure for fertilizer; run-off water for irrigation; lumber and remunerative employment for service not needed in the fields.
图 240。京都城外的日本靛蓝田。
Fig. 240.—Field of Japanese indigo, just outside the city of Kyoto.
7月7日，我们从京都出发，沿着东北方向继续前行，绕过琵琶湖。火车离开大谷站后，我们突然从隧道出来，看到了琵琶湖。在很多地方，我们经过了类似图241所示的水车，它们都布置得类似，忙碌地转动着，直径通常为12到16英尺，但最常见的只有几英寸厚。直到我们到达琵琶湖后，山谷狭窄，只有小片区域种植着稻米。较高的耕地坡地上常见茶园，梯田上则种植着各种蔬菜，地面通常覆盖着厚厚的稻草。而更远处树木繁茂或草木茂盛的山坡上，则呈现出常见的周期性割草。穿过湖的西端后，稻田几乎连绵不断，广袤无垠。到达八幡之前，我们穿过一条通往湖中的小溪，但这条小溪被超过十二英尺高的堤坝阻隔。离开草津后，我们已穿过两座高架桥。在类似的土地上，其他作物与稻米并排种植，似乎与稻米轮作，但种植在十二到十四英寸高的陡峭狭窄的山脊上。我们向东行进，进入了一个重要的桑园区，那里的田地分为两层，较高的土地种植桑树或其他不需要灌溉的作物，较低的土地种植水稻或与其轮作的作物。
The journey was continued from Kyoto July 7th, taking the route leading northeastward, skirting lake Biwa which we came upon suddenly on emerging from a tunnel as the train left Otani. At many places we passed water-wheels such as that seen in Fig. 241, all similarly set, busily turning, and usually twelve to sixteen feet in diameter but oftenest only as many inches thick. Until we had reached Lake Biwa the valleys were narrow with only small areas in rice. Tea plantations were common on the higher cultivated slopes, and gardens on the terraced hillsides growing vegetables of many kinds were common, often with the ground heavily mulched with straw, while the wooded or grass-covered slopes still further up showed the usual systematic periodic cutting. After passing the west end of the lake, rice fields were nearly continuous and extensive. Before reaching Hachiman we crossed a stream leading into the lake but confined between levees more than twelve feet high, and we had already passed beneath two raised viaducts after leaving Kusatsu. Other crops were being grown side by side with the rice on similar lands and apparently in rotation with it, but on sharp, narrow, close ridges twelve to fourteen inches high. As we passed eastward we entered one of the important mulberry districts where the fields are graded to two levels, the higher occupied with mulberry or other crops not requiring irrigation, while the lower was devoted to rice or crops grown in rotation with it.
图 241——日本山间溪流中很常见的水车。
Fig. 241.—Type of water-wheel seen very commonly on the mountain streams in Japan.
在木曾川号的同名车站，有四座锚泊的浮动水力磨坊，由前后两对大型水轮推动，每对水轮在磨坊两侧的公共轴上运转，由流过的水流驱动。
On the Kisogawa, at the station of the same name, there were four anchored floating water-power mills propelled by two pair of large current wheels stationed fore and aft, each pair working on a common axle from opposite sides of the mill, driven by the force of the current flowing by.
从木曾川出发，我们进入了日本最大的平原之一的北端。这片平原宽约三十英里，向南延伸四十英里，直抵尾张湾。平原地势大致分为两级，地势高出稻田两英尺左右，种植着包括桑树在内的各种旱地作物。土壤以沙质为主，但该县稻米平均产量为每英亩37蒲式耳，高于全国平均水平。对名古屋北部子实验站土壤的分析显示，三种主要植物养分元素的含量如下。
At Kisogawa we had entered the northern end of one of the largest plains of Japan, some thirty miles wide and extending forty miles southward to Owari bay. The plain has been extensively graded to two levels, the benches being usually not more than two feet above the rice paddies, and devoted to various dry land crops, including the mulberry. The soil is decidedly sandy in character but the mean yield of rice for the prefecture is 37 bushels per acre and above the average for the country at large. An analysis of the soils at the sub-experiment station north of Nagoya shows the following content of the three main plant food elements.
这片平原上的绿肥作物主要是两种“粉红三叶草”，一种在秋天播种，一种在 5 月 15 日左右播种，第一种每英亩产量高达 16 吨绿肥，另一种则为 5 至 8 吨。
The green manure crops on this plain are chiefly two varieties of the “pink clover,” one sowed in the fall and one about May 15th, the first yielding as high as sixteen tons green weight per acre and the other from five to eight tons.
在远离山区和丘陵的平原上，农作物的茎秆主要被用作燃料，燃料灰以每吨 10 坎（或每英亩 330 磅，价值 1.20 美元）的价格施用于田地，而石灰的使用量很少。
On the plain distant from the mountain and hill land the stems of agricultural crops are largely used as fuel and the fuel ashes are applied to the fields at the rate of 10 kan per tan, or 330 pounds per acre, worth $1.20, little lime, as such, being used.
在爱知县，大部分是平原，耕地面积相当于我们政府乡镇共有人口1,752,042人，人口密度为每英亩4.7人，农民家庭数量为211,033户，平均每户拥有1.75英亩土地，主要产业为水稻和丝绸。
In the prefecture of Aichi, largely in this plain, with an area of cultivated land equal to about sixteen of our government townships, there is a population of 1,752,042, or a density of 4.7 per acre, and the number of households of farmers was placed at 211,033, thus giving to each farmer’s family an average of 1.75 acres, their chief industries being rice and silk culture.
离开爱知县安城农业试验站后不久，我们穿过宽阔的矢作川，这条河道流经高出稻田水面的坚固堤坝。桑葚、牛蒡和其他蔬菜都生长在稻田高出一两英尺的稻田上。这些景象一直延伸到冈崎、甲田和镰郡，那里许多地方的山丘上最近都砍光了低矮的森林，我们经过了许多捆成捆用作燃料的大堆松枝。经过名古屋以东六十五英里的五汤后，桑树成了主要作物。接下来是一片平原，这片平原耗费了大量劳动力，经过平整的方肩稻田高出稻田三四英尺；经过丰桥一段距离后，我们惊讶地发现，这里相当宽阔，相对平坦的土地上长满了松树和草本植物，显然这些植物已经被砍伐了又砍伐。二川以外的地方分布着稻田，土地看起来相似，但土壤质地更细一些，再往前走，还有其他未耕种的平坦地区。
Soon after leaving the Agricultural Experiment Station of Aichi prefecture at An Jo we crossed the large Yahagi-gawa, flowing between strong levees above the level of the rice fields. Mulberries, with burdock and other vegetables were growing upon all of the tables raised one to two feet above the rice paddies, and these features continued past Okasaki, Koda and Kamagori, where the hills in many places had been recently cut clean of the low forest growth and where we passed many large stacks of pine boughs tied in bundles for fuel. After passing Goyu sixty-five miles east from Nagoya, mulberry was the chief crop. Then came a plain country which had been graded and leveled at great cost of labor, the benches with their square shoulders standing three to four feet above the paddy fields; and after passing Toyohashi some distance we were surprised to cross a rather wide section of comparatively level land overgrown with pine and herbaceous plants which had evidently been cut and recut many times. Beyond Futagawa rice fields were laid out on what appeared to be similar land but with soil a little finer in texture, and still further along were other flat areas not cultivated.
在舞坂，相当一半的耕地似乎都种着桑树，低洼处有荷塘。而在滨松，稻田里点缀着许多方肩的稻田，高三到四英尺，上面种着桑树或蔬菜。我们经过天龙川的泛滥平原，河床几乎干涸，是半英里宽的粗砾石，许多农家的住所被近乎坚固、顶部平整、修剪整齐的常绿树篱包围着，这些树篱由九到十二英尺高的金松构成，构成了美丽而有效的屏障。
At Maisaka quite half the cultivated fields appear to be in mulberry with ponds of lotus plants in low places, while at Hamamatsu the rice fields are interspersed with many square-shouldered tables raised three to four feet and occupied with mulberry or vegetables. As we passed upon the flood plain of the Tenryugawa, with its nearly dry bed of coarse gravel half a mile wide, the dwellings of farm villages were many of them surrounded with nearly solid, flat-topped, trimmed evergreen hedges nine to twelve feet high, of the umbrella pine, forming beautiful and effective screens.
在中井済，我们离开桑园，前往茶园。只要有水田的地方，稻米就长得茂盛。在这里，我们也遇到了第一片烟草田。在袋井和方内，车站周围堆放着大量进口的满洲豆饼，显然是通过铁路运输的。在金谷，我们穿过一条长长的隧道，来到大井川的山谷，跨过一座十九孔桥，穿过宽阔而几乎干涸的河道，然后到达静冈县。这里大片的茶园沿着山坡蔓延开来，覆盖了广阔的区域。过了下一站，在到达静冈之前，我们穿过了一片几乎连绵不断的平坦稻田，绵延十七英里。
At Nakaidzumi we had left the mulberry orchards for those of tea, rice still holding wherever paddies could be formed. Here, too, we met the first fields of tobacco, and at Fukuroi and Homouchi large quantities of imported Manchurian bean cake were stacked about the station, having evidently been brought by rail. At Kanaya we passed through a long tunnel and were in the valley of the Oigawa, crossing the broad, nearly dry stream over a bridge of nineteen long spans and were then in the prefecture of Shizuoka where large fields of tea spread far up the hillsides, covering extensive areas, but after passing the next station, and for seventeen miles before reaching Shizuoka we traversed a level stretch of nearly continuous rice fields.
静冈实验站特别关注园艺事业，在引进优质新水果和改良本土品种方面已取得进展。我们发现，无论是在中国还是日本，酒店餐桌上供应的本土梨和桃子，其质地和风味都不是特别吸引人，但在这里，我们获准品尝三种成熟无花果的样品，它们味道鲜美，质地优良，其中一种果粒大小与一个大梨相当。实验站还展示了三种优质桃子，其中一种个头异常大，连果肉都呈精致的深玫瑰色。如果这种桃子能够制成罐头并保持其鲜美的色泽，那么它们将成为餐桌上的美味佳肴。这种桃子的味道和质地也非常出色，两种梨子也是如此。
The Shizuoka Experiment Station is devoting special attention to the interests of horticulture, and progress has already been made in introducing new fruits of better quality and in improving the native varieties. The native pears and peaches, as we found them served on the hotel tables in either China or Japan, were not particularly attractive in either texture or flavor, but we were here permitted to test samples of three varieties of ripe figs of fine flavor and texture, one of them as large as a good sized pear. Three varieties of fine peaches were also shown, one unusually large and with delicate deep rose tint, including the flesh. If such peaches could be canned so as to retain their delicate color they would prove very attractive for the table. The flavor and texture of this peach were also excellent, as was the case with two varieties of pears.
该站还在试验生产果酱，我们品尝了三种非常美味的果酱，其中两种没有苦味。看来，日本、韩国和中国的园艺发展前景一片光明，这将有利于利用这些国家广阔的山地，发展大规模的出口贸易，包括新鲜水果、果酱、蜜饯和罐头食品。这些国家气候宜人，土壤肥沃，人口众多，性情和习惯都非常适合从事这些产业，国内需求也十分旺盛，此外，还有巨大的发展潜力，可以发展利润丰厚的出口贸易，这将增加劳动力，为人民带来必要的收入。图242是该站的三幅景色，下图显示的是陡峭的梯田山坡，上面种满了橙子和其他水果，预示着美好的未来。
The station was also experimenting with the production of marmalades and we tasted three very excellent brands, two of them lacking the bitter flavor. It would appear that in Japan, Korea and China there should be a very bright future along the lines of horticultural development, leading to the utilization of the extensive hill lands of these countries and the development of a very extensive export trade, both in fresh fruits and marmalades, preserves and the canned forms. They have favorable climatic and soil conditions and great numbers of people with temperament and habits well suited to the industries, as well as an enormous home need which should be met, in addition to the large possibilities in the direction of a most profitable export trade which would increase opportunities for labor and bring needed revenue to the people. In Fig. 242 are three views at this station, the lower showing a steep terraced hillside set with oranges and other fruits, holding out a bright promise for the future.
图 242.—静冈实验站的建筑物和地面景观。
Fig. 242.—Views of buildings and grounds at the Shizuoka Experiment Station.
这里的桃园坐落在山坡上，桃树间距约六英尺。桃树三年即可结果，可维持十到十五年，每株桃树的收益为50到60日元，相当于每英亩100到120美元。桃园通常使用的肥料是粪肥-泥土-堆肥，每英亩施用3300磅，并轮流施用鱼粪，施用量相同。
Peach orchards were here set on the hill lands, the trees six feet apart each way. They come into bearing in three years, remain productive ten to fifteen years, and the returns are 50 to 60 yen per tan, or at the rate of $100 to $120 per acre. The usual fertilizers for a peach orchard are the manure-earth-compost, applied at the rate of 3300 pounds per acre, and fish guano applied in rotation and at the same rate.
静冈县是日本最大的县之一，总面积3029平方英里；其中2090平方英里为森林，438平方英里为牧场和玄屋地，501平方英里为耕地，其中不到一半为稻田。稻米平均产量接近每英亩33蒲式耳。该县人口为1,293,470，即每英亩耕地约4蒲式耳，稻米总产量约为每人236磅。
Shizuoka is one of the large prefectures, having a total area of 3029 square miles; 2090 of which are in forest; 438 in pasture and genya land, and 501 square miles cultivated, not quite one-half of which is in paddy fields. The mean yield of paddy rice is nearly 33 bushels per acre. The prefecture has a population of 1,293,470, or about four to the acre of cultivated field, and the total crop of rice is such as to provide 236 pounds to each person.
7月10日，我们从静冈出发前往东京，沿途许多地方的农民都在稻田里撒播一些粉状肥料，可能是豆饼。在富士火车站附近，穿过藤川河宽足足四分之一英里的砾石河床后，我们穿过一片宽阔的稻田，田地里铺满了稻田，稻田里则长满了梨树，梨树沿着高架的棚架生长。在Suduzuka附近，人们用镰刀沿着运河堤坝割草，用作稻田的绿肥。铁路左侧的稻田向东延伸了六英里多，一直延伸到我们经过的Hara地区。我们来到一片旱地，种植着桑树、茶叶和各种蔬菜，以及或多或少的旱稻。之后，我们又回到了沼津的水田，走了四英里。这里有四车肉牛，目的地是东京或横滨，这是我们第一次见到这样的牛车。
At many places along the way as we left Shizuoka July 10th for Tokyo, farmers were sowing broadcast, on the water, over their rice fields, some pulverized fertilizer, possibly bean cake. Near the railway station of Fuji, and after crossing the boulder gravel bed of the Fujikawa which was a full quarter of a mile wide, we were traversing a broad plain of rice paddies with their raised tables, but on them pear orchards were growing, trained to their overhead trellises. About Suduzuka grass was being cut with sickles along the canal dikes for use as green manure in the rice fields, which on the left of the railway, stretched eastward more than six miles to beyond Hara where we passed into a tract of dry land crops consisting of mulberry, tea and various vegetables, with more or less of dry land rice, but we returned to the paddy land again at Numazu, in another four miles. Here there were four carloads of beef cattle destined for Tokyo or Yokohama, the first we had seen.
正是在这个车站，铁路转向北，绕过美丽的富士山东侧，一路上升到一片棕色的壤土地势较高的地方，地上有许多直径两英尺的大石头。马匹沿着道路前行，路边是铺满青草的马鞍形道路，从山上前往稻田。这一带的稻田几乎寸草不生，只有草本植物，覆盖着茂密的绿色植被。大片土地种植着玉米和荞麦，荞麦被磨成面粉，做成通心粉，用筷子夹着吃（图243），也用来丰富稻米和裸麦的饮食。在御殿场，游客们离开乘火车登上富士山后，道路再次向东转弯，穿过众多隧道，迅速下降，穿过佐川宽阔的砾石河道。尽管正值雨季，但佐川河水量不大，就像我们之前穿过的其他主要河流一样。部分原因是雨季尚未到来；部分原因是稻田被大量汲取，还有部分原因是陡坡和相对较短的河道排水速度很快。过了山北，铁路再次沿着一片广阔的稻田平原延伸，山坡上几乎一直延伸到山顶，形成梯田状耕作。
It was at this station that the railway turns northward to skirt the eastern flank of the beautiful Fuji-yama, rising to higher lands of a brown loamy character, showing many large boulders two feet in diameter. Horses were here moving along the roadways under large saddle loads of green grass, going to the paddy fields from the hills, which in this section are quite free from all but herbaceous growth, well covered and green. Considerable areas were growing maize and buckwheat, the latter being ground into flour and made into macaroni which is eaten with chopsticks, Fig. 243, and used to give variety to the diet of rice and naked barley. At Gotenba, where tourists leave the train to ascend Fuji-yama, the road turns eastward again and descends rapidly through many tunnels, crossing the wide gravelly channel of the Sakawagawa, then carrying but little water, like all of the other main streams we had crossed, although we were in the rainy season. This was partly because the season was yet not far advanced; partly because so much water was being taken upon the rice fields, and again because the drainage is so rapid down the steep slopes and comparatively short water courses. Beyond Yamakita the railway again led along a broad plain set in paddy rice and the hill slopes were terraced and cultivated nearly to their summits.
图 243. 日本女士用筷子吃荞麦通心粉。
Fig. 243.—Japanese ladies eating buckwheat macaroni with chopsticks.
列车向东南方向急转，抵达诺都兹，那里是一片丘陵地带，主要种植蔬菜、桑树和烟草。烟草种植面积向东一直延伸到大矶，大约一英里外就是种植着红薯、南瓜和黄瓜的土地，之后是一片平坦的稻田。到达平塚之前，稻田已经散落一地，火车穿过一片相对平坦的土地，土地为沙质，有时还夹杂着砾石。桑树、桃子、茄子、红薯和旱稻的种植点缀其间，一些地方仍然长着小松树和草本植物，或者最近才种上小松树。我们穿过宽阔的番由川之后，继续向藤石方向前进，那里是一片平坦的平原，稻田间散布着许多稻米，这里是东京平原的西南边缘，东京平原是日本最大的平原，横跨五个县，耕地总面积为 1,739,200 英亩，由 657,235 个农民家庭耕种；其中 661,613 英亩为水稻田，每年生产约 19,198,000 蒲式耳，五个县 7,194,045 名男女老少每人可产 161 磅稻米，其中 1,818,655 人居住在首都东京。
Swinging strongly southeastward, the coast was reached at Noduz in a hilly country producing chiefly vegetables, mulberry and tobacco, the latter crop being extensively grown eastward nearly to Oiso, beyond which, after a mile of sweet potatoes, squash and cucumbers, there were paddy fields of rice in a flat plain. Before Hiratsuka was reached the rice paddies were left and the train was crossing a comparatively flat country with a sandy, sometimes gravelly, soil where mulberries, peaches, eggplants, sweet potatoes and dry land rice were interspersed with areas still occupied with small pine and herbaceous growth or where small pine had been recently set. Similar conditions prevailed after we had crossed the broad channel of the Banyugawa and well toward and beyond Fujishiwa where a leveled plain has its tables scattered among the fields of paddy rice, this being the southwest margin of the Tokyo plain, the largest in Japan, lying in five prefectures, whose aggregate area of 1,739,200 acres of arable lands was worked by 657,235 families of farmers; 661,613 acres of which was in paddy rice, producing annually some 19,198,000 bushels, or 161 pounds for each of the 7,194,045 men, women and children in the five prefectures, 1,818,655 of whom were in the capital city, Tokyo.
图 24.4显示了 7 月 17 日在千叶县东部平原拍摄的三张照片。其中两张照片中，田野里还矗立着几捆麦子，周围是正在生长的庄稼，由于雨季的到来，庄稼已经风化严重，籽粒正在发芽。当时，旱地上的主要作物是花生、红薯和小米，被水淹没的盆地里则种着水稻。温莎豆、油菜、小麦和大麦已经收割。我们采访的一户人家正在打麦子。麦子收成很好，每英亩产量在 38.5 到 41.3 蒲式耳之间，当时价值 35 到 40 美元。在同一块土地上，这位农民收获了 352 到 361 蒲式耳的土豆，按当时的市场价格计算，每英亩可获得 64 到 66 美元的总收入。
Three views taken in the eastern portion of this plain in the prefecture of Chiba, July 17th, are seen in Fig. 244, in two of which shocks of wheat were still standing in the fields among the growing crops, badly weathered and the grain sprouting as the result of the rainy season. Peanuts, sweet potatoes and millet were the main dry land crops then on the ground, with paddy rice in the flooded basins. Windsor beans, rape, wheat and barley had been harvested. One family with whom we talked were threshing their wheat. The crop had been a good one and was yielding between 38.5 and 41.3 bushels per acre, worth at the time $35 to $40. On the same land this farmer secures a yield of 352 to 361 bushels of potatoes, which at the market price at that time would give a gross earning of $64 to $66 per acre.
图 244、东京平原的三处景观，上面两幅主要种植红薯，其次是小麦，下面一幅种植的是花生。
Fig. 244.—Three landscapes in the Tokyo plain, the upper two largely in sweet potatoes, following wheat, the lower in peanuts.
图 245——利用粗秸秆和枯枝落叶同时进行覆盖和施肥的两种方法。
Fig. 245.—Two methods of utilizing coarse straw and litter for mulching and fertilizing at the same time.
已经提到日本人在栽培方法中广泛使用稻草。这在他们的卡车花园工作中尤为明显，图 245显示了其中的两个阶段。在插图的下半部分，花园已经为移植做好了垄沟准备，苗木已经铺好，根部覆盖了一层薄土；然后，在中间部分，显示了该方法的下一步，一层稻草被牢牢地压在根部上方，在最后一步，这层稻草将被覆上泥土。采用这种方法，稻草的放置方式如下：(1)它作为一种有效的覆盖物，不会以任何方式干扰水通过毛细管上升到苗木根部；(2)它使土壤深层彻底通气，同时使雨水迅速渗透，带走空气；(3)稻草中携带的灰分成分被直接滤到需要它们的根部； （4）最后，稻草和土壤形成堆肥，快速腐烂后逐渐释放出植物养分，并将其储存在最容易获得养分的地方。插图上部展示了一排排覆盖着厚厚粗稻草的茄子。这些稻草的量足以起到最有效的覆盖作用，在很大程度上防止了杂草的生长，并在雨季作为非常有效的肥料。
Reference has been made to the extensive use of straw in the cultural methods of the Japanese. This is notably the case in their truck garden work, and two phases of this are shown in Fig. 245. In the lower section of the illustration the garden has been ridged and furrowed for transplanting, the sets have been laid and the roots covered with a little soil; then, in the middle section, showing the next step in the method, a layer of straw has been pressed firmly above the roots, and in the final step this would be covered with earth. Adopting this method the straw is so placed that (1) it acts as an effective mulch without in any way interfering with the capillary rise of water to the roots of the sets; (2) it gives deep, thorough aeration of the soil, at the same time allowing rains to penetrate quickly, drawing the air after it; (3) the ash ingredients carried in the straw are leached directly to the roots where they are needed; (4) and finally the straw and soil constitute a compost where the rapid decay liberates plant food gradually and in the place where it will be most readily available. The upper section of the illustration shows rows of eggplants very heavily mulched with coarse straw, the quantity being sufficient to act as a most effective mulch, to largely prevent the development of weeds and to serve during the rainy season as a very material fertilizer.
在种植大麦、豆类、荞麦或旱稻等旱地作物时，首先要通过耕耘或翻耕来调整田地土壤，然后在即将种植的行距处深挖沟壑。在沟壑中施肥，再覆上一层土，最后将种子播种于其上。作物长成后，如果需要再次施肥，可在每行旁边开一条沟，将肥料播种于沟内，然后覆土。当作物成熟到可以种植第二行时，在两行之间或其中一行的相邻处开一条新沟，施肥后覆上一层土，最后播种。这样，生长季的损失就尽可能小，田地里的所有土壤都能为作物生产贡献力量。
In growing such dry land crops as barley, beans, buckwheat or dry land rice the soil of the field is at first fitted by plowing or spading, then furrowed deeply where the rows are to be planted. Into these furrows fertilizer is placed and covered with a layer of earth upon which the seed is planted. When the crop is up, if a second fertilization is desired, a furrow may be made alongside each row, into which the fertilizer is sowed and then covered. When the crop is so far matured that a second may be planted, a new furrow is made, either midway between two others or adjacent to one of them, fertilizer applied and covered with a layer of soil and the seed planted. In this way the least time possible is lost during the growing season, all of the soil of the field doing duty in crop production.
图 246.——日本东京帝国农业实验站土壤研究区剖面图。
Fig. 246.—Section of soil study field, Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station, Tokyo, Japan.
我们有幸参观了位于东京附近的西原帝国农业实验站，该站负责领导帝国的一般性农业技术研究工作。该工作分为农业、农业化学、昆虫学、植物病理学、烟草、园艺、畜牧育种、土壤和茶叶生产等部门，每个部门都配有相应的实验室设备和研究人员。41个县级科研站和14个分站负责处理所有具体的本地实际问题，并测试和应用中央科研站研究结果所得出的结论和方法，同时在各县的农民中传播相关知识。
It was our privilege to visit the Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station at Nishigahara, near Tokyo, which is charged with the leadership of the general and technical agricultural research work for the Empire. The work is divided into the sections of agriculture, agricultural chemistry, entomology, vegetable pathology, tobacco, horticulture, stock breeding, soils, and tea manufacture, each with their laboratory equipment and research staff, while the forty-one prefectural stations and fourteen sub-stations are charged with the duty of handling all specific local, practical problems and with testing out and applying conclusions and methods suggested by the results obtained at the central station, together with the local dissemination of knowledge among the farmers of the respective prefectures.
自1893年之前，帝国就已开始对耕地进行全面的土壤调查，并发行了比例尺为1比100,000（约1.57英寸/英里）的优质地图，这些地图以八种颜色显示地质构造，并用字母细分。根据物理成分，已识别出大约11种土壤类型，这些土壤类型的面积以黑色线条和点的形式印在彩色地图上。每张地图上都印有深度达3米的典型土壤剖面图，并在地图上用相应的红色数字标明这些土壤类型的适用地区。
A comprehensive soil survey of the arable lands of the Empire has been in progress since before 1893, excellent maps being issued on a scale of 1 to 100,000, or about 1.57 inch to the mile, showing the geological formations in eight colors with subdivisions indicated by letters. Some eleven soil types are recognized, based on physical composition and the areas occupied by these are shown by means of lines and dots in black printed over the colors. Typical profiles of the soil to depths of three meters are printed as insets on each sheet and localities where these apply are indicated by corresponding numbers in red on the map.
实验室里也正在进行土壤和底土样本的精细化学和物理研究。帝国农业实验站拥有完善的设施，可用于开展多种研究工作，尤其擅长土壤研究。图246展示了一些大型浸没式圆柱体的一部分，里面装满了来自帝国不同地区的典型土壤；图247展示了正在进行的土壤研究的精密设备的另一部分。
Elaborate chemical and physical studies are also being made in the laboratories of samples of both soil and subsoil. The Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station is well equipped for investigation work along many lines and that for soils is notably strong. In Fig. 246 may be seen a portion of the large immersed cylinders which are filled with typical soils from different parts of the Empire, and Fig. 247 shows a portion of another part of their elaborate outfit for soil studies which are in progress.
研究发现，日本几乎所有耕地的土壤对石蕊呈酸性，而这倾向于归因于酸性氢化铝硅酸盐的存在。
It is found that nearly all cultivated soils of Japan are acid to litmus, and this they are inclined to attribute to the presence of acid hydro-aluminum silicates.
日本岛国沿着亚洲海岸延伸，跨越北纬二十九度以上从台湾岛南端向北到萨哈林岛中部，约2300法定英里；或从古巴中部纬度到纽芬兰岛北部和温尼伯纬度；但总土地面积仅为175,428平方英里，小于威斯康星州、爱荷华州和明尼苏达州三州的总面积。在这片土地总面积中，目前只有23,698平方英里为耕地；三个主要岛屿上的7151平方英里为杂草地和牧场。目前，耕地占总土地面积的不到14%。
The Island Empire of Japan stretches along the Asiatic coast through more than twenty-nine degrees of latitude from the southern extremity of Formosa northward to the middle of Saghalin, some 2300 statute miles; or from the latitude of middle Cuba to that of north Newfoundland and Winnipeg; but the total land area is only 175,428 square miles, and less than that of the three states of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota. Of this total land area only 23,698 square miles are at present cultivated; 7151 square miles in the three main islands are weed and pasture land. Less than fourteen per cent of the entire land area is at present under cultivation.
如果所有坡度小于十五度的土地都可以耕种，那么四个主要岛屿上仍有 15,400 平方英里的土地可供耕种，这将使已耕种土地面积增加 65.4%。
If all lands having a slope of less than fifteen degrees may be tilled, there yet remain in the four main islands, 15,400 square miles to bring under cultivation, which is an addition of 65.4 per cent to the land already cultivated.
1907年，帝国共有5,814,362户农民，耕种15,201,969英亩土地，养活了3,522,877户农民，即51,742,398人。平均每英亩耕地养活3.4人，每户农民平均耕种2.6英亩土地。
In 1907 there were in the Empire some 5,814,362 households of farmers tilling 15,201,969 acres and feeding 3,522,877 additional households, or 51,742,398 people. This is an average of 3.4 people to the acre of cultivated land, each farmer’s household tilling an average of 2.6 acres.
尚未开垦的土地正在迅速耕种，1907年已改良的土地面积为64,448英亩。如果这些新开垦的土地能够像现在的土地一样高产，那么在不改变目前每英亩耕地3.4人的比例的情况下，人口将有机会增加到约35,000,000人。
The lands yet to be reclaimed are being put under cultivation rapidly, the amount improved in 1907 being 64,448 acres. If the new lands to be reclaimed can be made as productive as those now in use there should be opportunity for an increase in population to the extent of about 35,000,000 without changing the present ratio of 3.4 people to the acre of cultivated land.
虽然剩余待开垦的土地本身生产力不如现在的土地，但管理的改进将足以弥补这一点，帝国的维护能力必将增加一倍，为至少一亿人提供比现在更多的居家舒适和更多的普通民众的满足感。
While the remaining lands to be reclaimed are not as inherently productive as those now in use, improvements in management will more than compensate for this, and the Empire is certain to quite double its present maintenance capacity and provide for at least a hundred million people with many more comforts of home and more satisfaction for the common people than they now enjoy.
自1872年以来，日本人口年均增长率约为1.1%，如果保持这一速度，不到60年就能突破1亿大关。然而，耕地和畜牧面积的增加似乎足以满足人口增长的需求，而耕作方式和作物的改良也很容易使日本人口再次增加，使现今的日本帝国人口达到1.5亿。或许，与此观点相反的是，截至1906年的20年间，日本水稻产量仅比1838年高出33%。
Since 1872 there has been an increase in the population of Japan amounting to an annual average of about 1.1 per cent, and if this rate is maintained the one hundred million mark would be passed in less than sixty years. It appears probable however that the increased acreage put under cultivation and pasturage combined, will more than keep pace with the population up to this limit, while the improvement in methods and crops will readily permit a second like increment to her population, bringing that for the present Empire up to 150 millions. Against this view, perhaps, is the fact that the rice crop of the twenty years ending in 1906 is only thirty-three per cent greater than the crop of 1838.
图 247.——日本东京帝国农业实验站化学土壤研究设备的一部分。
Fig. 247.—Part of equipment for chemical soil studies, Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station, Tokyo, Japan.
在日本，如同在美国一样，由于制造业和商业的蓬勃发展以及人均土地面积狭小，人口从乡村向城市迁移的现象十分普遍。1903年，日本仅有0.23%的人口居住在人口少于500人的村庄，79.06%的人口居住在人口少于10,000人的城镇和村庄，20.7%的人口居住在人口规模更大的城镇和村庄。但到了1894年，84.36%的人口居住在人口少于10,000人的城镇和村庄，仅有15.64%的人口居住在人口超过10,000人的城镇和村庄；在这十年间，农村人口以每10,000人增加640人的速度增长，而城市人口则以每10,000人增加6,174人的速度增长。
In Japan, as in the United States, there has been a strong movement from the country to the city as a natural result of the large increase in manufactures and commerce, and the small amount of land per each farmer’s household. In 1903 only .23 per cent of the population of Japan were living in villages of less than 500, while 79.06 per cent were in towns and villages of less than 10,000 people, 20.7 per cent living in those larger. But in 1894 84.36 per cent of the population were living in towns and villages of less than 10,000, and only 15.64 per cent were in cities, towns and villages of over 10,000 people; and while during these ten years the rural population had increased at the rate of 640 per 10,000, in cities the increase had been 6,174 per 10,000.
日本一直以来都是一个以农业为主的国家，现在依然如此。1906年，日本有3,872,105户以农业为主业的农户，以及1,581,204户以农业为副业的农户，占总农户数的60.2%。台湾也有类似的比例，但不包括那些不耕种自家土地的富裕地主。
Japan has been and still is essentially an agricultural nation and in 1906 there were 3,872,105 farmers’ households, whose chief work was farming, and 1,581,204 others whose subsidiary work was farming, or 60.2 per cent of the entire number of households. A like ratio holds in Formosa, Wealthy land owners who do not till their own fields are not included.
日本约有33.34%的农民拥有并耕种自己的土地。拥有较小土地且租用额外土地的农民占总农民的46.03%；而20.63%的佃农则耕种了44.1%的土地。1892年，只有1%的土地所有者拥有超过25英亩的土地；拥有25英亩至5英亩土地的农民占11.7%；而87.3%的土地所有者拥有不到5英亩的土地。每人英亩。在日本，拥有七十五英亩土地的人就算作“大地主”。然而，除了农业新兴的北海道地区外，这些土地通常集中于一人所有的情况从来都不是真的。
Of the farmers in Japan some 33.34 per cent own and work their land. Those having smaller holdings, who rent additional land, make up 46.03 per cent of the total farmers; while 20.63 per cent are tenants who work 44.1 per cent of the land. In 1892 only one per cent of the land holders owned more than twenty-five acres each; those holding between twenty-five acres and five acres made up 11.7 per cent; while 87.3 per cent held less than five acres each. A man owning seventy-five acres of land in Japan is counted among the “great land-holders”. It is never true, however, except in the Hokkaido, which is a new country agriculturally, that such holdings lie in one body.
日本农商部农业局发布的《日本农业》统计数据，可以列出以下租金、作物收益、税金和费用的报表。出租土地的富裕地主获得如下回报：
Statistics published in “Agriculture in Japan”, by the Agricultural Bureau, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, permit the following statements of rent, crop returns, taxes and expenses, to be made. The wealthy land owners who rent their lands receive returns like these:
结合这些统计数据，据称土地资本的利润率为：稻田5.6%，旱田5.7%。这使得土地估价分别约为每英亩338美元和159美元。按照这些比率，拥有并租赁10英亩稻田和10英亩旱田的土地所有者每年可获得279.90美元的净收入。
It is stated, in connection with these statistics, that the rate of profit for land capital is 5.6 per cent for the paddy field, and 5.7 per cent for the upland field. This makes the valuation of the land about $338 and $159 per acre, respectively. A land holder who owns and rents ten acres of paddy field and ten acres of upland field would, at these rates, realize a net annual income of $279.90.
拥有并耕种土地的农民每英亩的收入如下：
Peasant farmers who own and work their lands receive per acre an income as follows:
拥有并耕种五英亩土地（其中2.5英亩为稻田，2.5英亩为旱田）的农民，总净收入为40.50美元。这还不包括他的劳动成本。加上这部分，他的收入大约为91美元。
The peasant farmer who owns and works five acres, 2.5 of paddy and 2.5 of upland field, would realize a total net income of $40.50. This is after deducting the price of his labor. With that included, his income would be something like $91.
Tenant farmers who work some 41 per cent of the farm lands of Japan, would have accounts something as follows:
这句话表明佃农从作物中获得的收入不足以完全支付其劳动成本和相应的价格。如果佃农租用五英亩土地，平均分配给稻田和旱田，那么根据稻田收获的作物种类，其收入将是73美元或99.73美元，这代表了他从劳动中获得的收入，而他的其他支出则抵消了作物价值的差额。
This statement indicates that tenant farmers do not realize enough from the crops to quite cover expenses and the price named for their labor. If the tenant were renting five acres, equally divided between paddy and upland field, the earning would be $73.00 or $99.73 according as one or two crops are taken from the paddy field, this representing what he realizes on his labor, his other expenses absorbing the balance of the crop value.
但日本农民平均每户耕种的土地面积仅为2.6英亩，因此佃农家庭的平均收入应为37.95美元或51.86美元。为了更清楚地了解日本农民与美国农民当前状况的差异，我们可以以我们160英亩农场为例，进行如下表所示的日本式陈述：
But the average area tilled by each Japanese farmer’s household is only 2.6 acres, hence the average earning of the tenant household would be $37.95 or $51.86. A clearer view of the difference in the present condition of farmers in Japan and of those in the United States may be gained by making the Japanese statement on the basis of our 160-acre farm, as expressed in the table below:
在美国，160 英亩的农场由一个家庭管理并养活一个家庭，但在日本，由于平均每个家庭只耕种 2.6 英亩的土地，160 英亩的收益分配给大约 61 个家庭，这使得每个人的净回报只有 21.25 美元，而不是 1296 美元，如果将劳动收入也算上，那么收入将增加 39.96 美元，即每户 60.67 美元，而不是 3733.60 美元，后者是在日本条件下 160 英亩农场的总收入。
In the United States the 160-acre farm is managed by and supports a single family, but in Japan, as the average household works but 2.6 acres, the earnings of the 160 acres are distributed among some 61 household, making the net return to each but $21.25, instead of $1296, and including the labor as earning, the income would be $39.96 more, or $60.67 per household instead of $3733.60, the total for a 160-acre farm worked under Japanese conditions.
这些数字多少揭示了这些人除了维持家庭生计之外所承受的紧张压力和沉重负担。种植一季水稻的佃农每英亩需支付23.89美元的租金。如果种植两季水稻，则需支付31.58美元；如果是高地，则需支付13.52美元。此外，他还需分别支付10.33美元、21.52美元或13.45美元用于肥料、种子和其他费用，因此每英亩的总投资分别为34.22美元、53.10美元或26.97美元，这就需要购买同样数量的小麦（以每蒲式耳1美元的价格出售）才能弥补这笔成本。此外，他还承担了所有天气、虫害和枯萎病造成的损失风险，希望能收回成本，并额外获得当季14.81美元、25.52美元或14.39美元的劳务报酬。
These figures reveal something of the tense strain and of the terrible burden which is being carried by these people, over and above that required for the maintenance of the household. The tenant who raises one crop of rice pays a rental of $23.89 per acre. If he raises two crops he pays $31.58; if it is upland field, he pays $13.52. To these amounts he adds $10.33, $21.52 or $13.45 respectively for fertilizer, seed and other expenses, making a total investment of $34.22, $53.10 or $26.97 per acre, which would require as many bushels of wheat sold at a dollar a bushel to cover this cost. In addition to this he assumes all the risks of loss from weather, from insects and from blight, in the hope that he may recoup his expenses and in addition have for his services $14.81, $25.52 or $14.39 for the season’s work.
社会负担，过去和现在，在很大程度上都是战争和政府的负担，所有国家都一样，这在日本的土地税中体现得几乎令人眼花缭乱，从高地每英亩1.98美元到稻田每英亩7.34美元不等，四分之一的土地（不含建筑物）每年要负担300到1100美元。1907年，日本的预算为134,941,113美元，按每名男女老少2.60美元计算；每英亩耕地8.90美元，帝国时期每户家庭23美元计算。如此一来，图248所示的景象在今天的日本随处可见也就不足为奇了，因为70年的辛劳似乎从未停止过。
The burdens of society, which have been and still are so largely burdens of war and of government, with all nations, are reflected with almost blinding effect in the land taxes of Japan, which range from $1.98, on the upland, to $7.34 per acre on the paddy fields, making a quarter section, without buildings, carry a burden of $300 to $1100 annually. Japan’s budget in 1907 was $134,941,113, which is at the rate of $2.60 for each man, woman and child; $8.90 for each acre of cultivated land, and $23, for each household in the Empire. When such is the case it is not strange that scenes like Fig. 248 are common in Japan today where, after seventy years, toil may not cease.
这样的场景既有光明的一面，也有悲凉的一面。两人共同生活了五十年，虽然日子过得辛劳，但随之而来的是强健的体魄、坚韧的心智和高尚的品格。如果说重担曾经沉重的负担，彼此都使对方的负担变得更轻，满足感更加充沛，欢乐更加强烈，悲伤也更容易承受；来到这个家又离开这个家生儿育女，他们无一不是为建立强大而持久的国家做出贡献的人。
There is a bright, as well as a pathetic side to scenes like this. The two have shared for fifty years, but if the days have been full of toil, with them have come strength of body, of mind and sterling character. If the burdens have been heavy, each has made the other’s lighter, the satisfaction fuller, the joys keener, the sorrows less difficult to bear; and the children who came into the home and have gone from it to perpetuate new ones, could not well be other than such as to contribute to the foundations of nations of great strength and long endurance.
图 248、七十年后，辛劳仍未停止。
Fig. 248.—After seventy years, toil may not cease.
有人提到，妇女和儿童在农民家中承担了大量工作，而男人在没有其他工作时也承担了大量工作，这些附加工作的收入在物质上帮助弥补了微薄的收入，并支付了相对较高的税收和租金。
Reference has been made to the large amount of work carried on in the farmers’ households by the women and children, and by the men when they are not otherwise employed, and the earnings of this subsidiary work have materially helped to piece out the meagre income and to meet the relatively high taxes and rent.
_____________
_____________
一个
A
土壤酸度，424。
Acidity of soils, 424.
人均英亩数，美国1 ；东方，1、2、193、410、425。
Acres per capita, U. S. 1; Orient, 1, 2, 193, 410, 425.
造林，151、155、156、159、398；土地，217-220 。
Afforestation, 151, 155, 156, 159, 398; tract, 217–220.
农学院，381。
Agricultural college, 381.
爱知，413。
Aichi, 413.
Akashi Experiment Station, 22, 396.
阿穆尔河，351。
Amur river, 351.
分析，灰烬，207；堆肥，211；排泄物，194；genya，211；牛奶，149；土壤，413。
Analysis, ashes, 207; compost, 211; excreta, 194; genya, 211; milk, 149: soil, 413.
蚯蚓，205。
Angleworms, 205.
动物饮食，135。
Animal diet, 135.
耕地面积 6,425 亩，户均425亩，菜园面积377 亩，稻田面积277亩。
Area, cultivated land, 6, 425; per family, 425, 429; of gardens, 377; of rice paddies, 277.
地区，爱知县，414；日本，425；奈良，400；山东，216；静冈，417；德岛，417；东京平原，419。
Area, Aichi, 414; Japan, 425; Nara, 400; Shantung, 216; Shizuoka, 417; Tokushima, 417; Tokyo plain, 419.
面积，森林，160 ；genya，209 ；豆科植物，213；稻田，7、8、27、271、272；茶叶，326；纺织品，164 ；小麦，272；灯心草，395。
Area, forests, 160; genya, 209; legumes, 213; rice fields, 7, 8, 27, 271, 272; tea, 326; textiles, 164; wheat, 272; rush, 395.
灰烬作为肥料，9，68，169，182，207，251，2S6，296，380，392，410，425 。
Ashes as fertilizer, 9, 68, 169, 182, 207, 251, 2S6, 296, 380, 392, 410, 425.
B
B
袋，席子制，159、165、305、306、308、359 ；纸制， 396 。
Bags, of matting, 159, 165, 305, 306, 308, 359; paper, 396.
竹子，62、64、127、130、132、133、138、147、157、165、188、290、293、301、385、387、388；芽苗菜，131 。
Bamboo, 62, 64, 127, 130, 132, 133, 138, 147, 157, 165, 188, 290, 293, 301, 385, 387, 388; sprouts, 131.
香蕉，82。
Bananas, 82.
大麦，6，53，54，226，227，242，267，272，306，309，329，362，379，410，422，423；捆茎，206 。
Barley, 6, 53, 54, 226, 227, 242, 267, 272, 306, 309, 329, 362, 379, 410, 422, 423; tying stems, 206.
豆类，33、122、169、213、226、255、290、305、309、319、329、380、422、423；发芽的，134 。
Beans, 33, 122, 169, 213, 226, 255, 290, 305, 309, 319, 329, 380, 422, 423; sprouted, 134.
豆饼，257，378，392，417；出口，357，358，415。
Bean cakes, 257, 378, 392, 417; export, 357, 358, 415.
豆腐，143。
Bean curd, 143.
风景之美，389 – 392，400，405，409。
Beauty of landscapes, 389–392, 400, 405, 409.
床，烟囱，141，142，248。
肉牛，418头。
Beef cattle, 418.
贝洛斯，143。
Bellows, 143.
弯曲木材，89。
Bending wood, 89.
比波，396。
Bibo, 396.
鸟类，62。
Birds, 62.
船，77，78，83，86，171 。
家蚕，319。
Bombyx mori, 319.
借钱，152。
Borrowing money, 152.
小脚，62，122，230。
弓，用于搅打棉花，127。
Bow, for whipping cotton, 127.
弓撑，87。
Bow-brace, 87.
义和团运动，217。
Boxer uprising, 217.
火盆，138。
Braziers, 138.
砖，142，143，162，163。
桥梁建设，299。
Bridge building, 299.
Bucket and well sweep, 297, 299.
荞麦，359，418，423 。
水牛，水，145，149，150，235，335，336，338 。
Buffalo, water, 145, 149, 150, 235, 335, 336, 338.
水牛角，坚果，134。
Buffalo-horn, nut, 134.
建筑材料，160-163，232，285，358，337，395 。
Building materials, 160–163, 232, 285, 358, 337, 395.
Bureau of Agriculture, Japan, 9, 428.
黄油，150。
Butter, 150.
碳
C
卷心菜，128，129，190，268，342，343 。
Cabbage, 128, 129, 190, 268, 342, 343.
蛋糕，油，145 – 149，190，192，257，357，358，378，392 。
Cakes, oil, 145–149, 190, 192, 257, 357, 358, 378, 392.
小牛，水牛，150。
Calf, buffalo, 150.
印花布印花，121。
Calico printing, 121.
蒺藜，134。
Caltropes, 134.
樟树，63棵。
Camphor trees, 63.
运河，格兰德，99，101，104，108 。
Canal, Grand, 99, 101, 104, 108.
运河，90，99-102，107，346 ；英里，8，101。
Canals, 90, 99–102, 107, 346; miles, 8, 101.
Canalization, 98–110, 338; suggested, 273, 280.
运河泥，9，74，79，106，167-174，315，317；堆肥， 181-189 。
Canal mud, 9, 74, 79, 106, 167–174, 315, 317; compost, 181–189.
烛果树，378棵。
Candleberry trees, 378.
广州，5，60，72，75，78，80，198，319 。
Canton, 5, 60, 72, 75, 78, 80, 198, 319.
Canton Christian College, 51, 72, 75.
木匠，194。
Carpenter, 194.
扁担，47，59，64，121，170，200 。
Carrying pole, 47, 59, 64, 121, 170, 200.
卡什，76岁。
Cash, 76.
牛，51、135、159、233、353、355、399、418；每英亩2头；每英里3头。
Cattle, 51, 135, 159, 233, 353, 355, 399, 418; per acre, 2; per mile, 3.
凯蒂，76，149，150，169，255 。
Catty, 76, 149, 150, 169, 255.
谷壳作为肥料，297。
Chaff as fertilizer, 297.
Chamberlin，Rollin T. ，301，303。
Chamberlin, Rollin T., 301, 303.
木炭，138 – 140，159，363，402。
Charcoal, 138–140, 159, 363, 402.
奈良快速站，212。
Chart, Nara Exp’t Station, 212.
浙江, 98 , 100 , 111 , 113 , 141 , 284 , 300 , 314 , 315 , 319。
Chekiang, 98, 100, 111, 113, 141, 284, 300, 314, 315, 319.
成都，101。
Chengtu, 101.
樱花树，402，403，405。
栗子，水，134。
Chestnut, water, 134.
Chickens, 130; per mile, 3, 180.
直隶，53、55、143、157、161、297、331、342。
Chihli, 53, 55, 143, 157, 161, 297, 331, 342.
儿童，18、75、330、331、344。
Children, 18, 75, 330, 331, 344.
朱炜庸先生，224。
Chu Wei Yung, Mr., 224.
克莱，161。
Clay, 161.
三叶草，10，128，131，177，182-189，276，286，293，316，380，397，413 。
Clover, 10, 128, 131, 177, 182–189, 276, 286, 293, 316, 380, 397, 413.
煤炭，138，158，222，223；装载，40。
Coal, 138, 158, 222, 223; loading, 40.
茧，311，314，321，322 。
硬币，76。
Coins, 76.
学院，51，72，75，381。
堆肥，9，10，116，181 – 189，211 – 213，232，243 – 245，250 – 253，269，293，338，378，397 ；坑，182 – 184，248 ；堆，182 – 189，248 – 251，269，378，380，397，417 。
Compost, 9, 10, 116, 181–189, 211–213, 232, 243–245, 250–253, 269, 293, 338, 378, 397; pits, 182–184, 248; stacks, 182–189, 248–251, 269, 378, 380, 397, 417.
堆肥，250 – 252，261，290。
Composting, 250–252, 261, 290.
孔子，216。
Confucius, 216.
Conservation suggested, 273, 280.
科德伍德，363。
Cordwood, 363.
棉花，6，59，61，143，262-266，332 ；打浆， 125 。
Cotton, 6, 59, 61, 143, 262–266, 332; beating, 125.
Cottonseed oil, 145–148; cake, 145–149.
牛，149，190，284，288，341，402 。
Cows, 149, 190, 284, 288, 341, 402.
作物，226，343，353，358，362，377，396 ；每年数量，6，90，272，343，377 。
Crops, 226, 343, 353, 358, 362, 377, 396; number per year, 6, 90, 272, 343, 377.
黄瓜，35，36，203，266，398，419 。
Cucumbers, 35, 36, 203, 266, 398, 419.
Cultivated land, Nara, 400; Tokushima, 410.
耕作，239，353，362；水稻，292，293 。
Cultivation, 239, 353, 362; rice, 292, 293.
耕耘者，32，293，398。
好奇心，176。
Curiosity, 176.
D
D
大工原博士路210号。
Daikuhara. Dr., 210.
达尔尼，358。
Dalny, 358.
丹多拉，313。
Dandola, 313.
三角洲，黄浩，101；四川, 82 , 97 , 319 ;长江、50、61、99、101 。
Delta, Hwang ho, 101; Sikiang, 82, 97, 319; Yangtse, 50, 61, 99, 101.
人口密度，3，48，226，228，233，323 。
Density of population, 3, 48, 226, 228, 233, 323.
堤坝，82，83，104，108，277，412 。
Dikes, 82, 83, 104, 108, 277, 412.
驴，122、232、233、341、353 ；每英里，3、226、233 。
Donkeys, 122, 232, 233, 341, 353; per mile, 3, 226, 233.
排水，109，281，338，339，419 。
Drainage, 109, 281, 338, 339, 419.
连衣裙，37，75，138，140，312，355，364，366。
Dress, 37, 75, 138, 140, 312, 355, 364, 366.
干旱，230，242，341。
旱地稻，271，418，419。
染色，124。
Dyeing, 124.
染料，410。
Dyes, 410.
埃
E
收益，134，153，203，242，306，307，309，331，319，329，342 – 344，377，395，396，417，422，428，429。
Earnings, 134, 153, 203, 242, 306, 307, 309, 331, 319, 329, 342–344, 377, 395, 396, 417, 422, 428, 429.
鸡蛋，180，181，233。
茄子，281，282，419。
Elizabeth Blake Hospital, 120, 151.
侵蚀，85，97，110，112，218，229，330，353，388。
Erosion, 85, 97, 110, 112, 218, 229, 330, 353, 388.
埃文斯（Evans ），修订版AE ，152，153，253，330，331，332 。
Evans, Rev. A. E., 152, 153, 253, 330, 331, 332.
日本实验站，211 – 213，307，315，376，378，381，382 – 384，387，397，414，424。
Experiment Stations, Japan, 211–213, 307, 315, 376, 378, 381, 382–384, 387, 397, 414, 424.
出口，豆类，348、357 ；谷物，356；丝绸，311、312、321 ；茶叶，12、326。
Export, beans, 348, 357; grain, 356; silk, 311, .312, 321; tea, 12, 326.
F
F
范宁米尔斯，304。
Fanning mills, 304.
农场工业，165，306，431。
Farm industries, 165, 306, 431.
农民家庭，165、419、425、427 。
Farmers’ families, 165, 419, 425, 427.
Farmer in winter dress, 38, 140.
农场，93，233，427 。
英尺，束缚，63，122，230。
肥料，商业，1，296，379，392，396，417 。
Fertilizers, commercial, 1, 296, 379, 392, 396, 417.
肥料，68、73、93、142、143、161、167-175、181-189、193-215、232、285、329、338、343、377、378、379、400 ；渠泥，9、74、79、106、167174；豆饼，257、378、392、417 ；作物去除的， 214、215、246、255 。
Fertilizers, 68, 73, 93, 142, 143, 161, 167–175, 181–189, 193–215, 232, 285, 329, 338, 343, 377, 378, 379, 400; canal mud, 9, 74, 79, 106, 167 174; bean cake, 257, 378, 392, 417; removed by crops, 214, 215, 246, 255.
施肥，9，74，79，81，112，116，167-189，200，207-215，250-252，254256，315，329，379，413，417，423 ；堆肥，181-189，211，213，243，245，250-252，379，417；用于豆科植物，10、106、182-189、256-259、267、293、378、379、397、413；用于鱼塘，95。
Fertilization, 9, 74, 79, 81, 112, 116, 167–189, 200, 207–215, 250–252, 254 256, 315, 329, 379, 413, 417, 423; compost, 181–189, 211, 213, 243, 245, 250–252, 379, 417; with legumes, 10, 106, 182–189, 256–259, 267, 293, 378, 379, 397, 413; for fish ponds, 95.
无花果，415。
Figs, 415.
无火炊具，77。
Fireless cooker, 77.
烟花，253。
Fireworks, 253.
鱼类，77，95；养殖，93，115，213；鸟粪， 417 。
Fish, 77, 95; culture, 93, 115, 213; Guano, 417.
洪水，104、106-108、109、216、338。
Floods, 104, 106–108, 109, 216, 338.
楼层数：253。
Floors, 253.
花卉雕像，67。
Floral statuary, 67.
食品，77，121，128-136，177，322，379，418 。
Food, 77, 121, 128–136, 177, 322, 379, 418.
足力，79，298，299，302，399 。
Foot-power, 79, 298, 299, 302, 399.
森林面积，160，417；回归面积，218-220 ；生长面积，151，159，362，368；稀疏面积， 14 ；采伐面积，151，159，378，399；种植面积，156。
Forest, area, 160, 417; return, 218–220; growth, 151, 159, 362, 368; scanty, 14; cutting, 151, 159, 378, 399; planting, 156.
叉，89。
Fork, 89.
燃料，52，86，137-159，221，363，368，378，399，402，413，414；数量， 207 。
Fuel, 52, 86, 137–159, 221, 363, 368, 378, 399, 402, 413, 414; amount, 207.
福冈快捷站，377，381，382，384，387。
Fukuoka Exp’t Station, 377, 381, 382 384, 387.
格
G
花园，15，44，66，343，398 。
Gardens, 15, 44, 66, 343, 398.
Genge，380。
Genge, 380.
根亚，209 – 211、295、296、417、425。
Genya, 209–211, 295, 296, 417, 425.
德国著作，217，236，256。
人参，392。
Ginseng, 392.
山羊，51，235，353，356。
评分，112，114，277，311，320，338，412，413，414 。
Grading, 112, 114, 277, 311, 320, 338, 412, 413, 414.
大运河，99、101、104、108；建议，273。
Grand Canal, 99, 101, 104, 108; suggested, 273.
葡萄，343。
Grapes, 343.
Grass, 157, 418; from canals, 295, 296.
格雷夫斯，48 – 59、90、236、337、346、356；日本，25 ；中国， 48 – 59、72 。
Graves, 48–59, 90, 236, 337, 346, 356; in Japan, 25; in China, 48–59, 72.
墓地，48 – 59，157，235。
放牧，51，72，235，338，353，355，356 。
Grazing, 51, 72, 235, 338, 353, 355, 356.
绿肥，9，10，52，208-211，213，274286，289，295，296，309，368，377，378，379，380，397，413，417，418 。
Green manure, 9, 10, 52, 208–211, 213, 274 286, 289, 295, 296, 309, 368, 377, 378, 379, 380, 397, 413, 417, 418.
研磨，122，145，363。
行会，120。
Guilds, 120.
郭士立岛，60。
Gutzlaff Island, 60.
哈
H
哈斯先生，217。
Haas, Mr., 217.
箱根村，24。
Hakone village, 24.
Hall，AD，194。
Hall, A. D., 194.
汉口，61，101，196。
汉阳，61岁。
Hanyang, 61.
帽子，367。
Hats, 367.
赫奇斯，342，347，414 。
山丘，草本，14，85，208 - 211，218 - 220，295，377，378，385。
Hills, herbage, 14, 85, 208–211, 218–220, 295, 377, 378, 385.
山地，51、85、151、154 - 160、218、220、295、385、399、404、414、418、419 ；区域，400、411；茶园， 324 。
Hill lands, 51, 85, 151, 154–160, 218 220, 295, 385, 399, 404, 414, 418, 419; area, 400, 411; for tea, 324.
锄谷，230，242，340，347，353，356。
Hoeing grain, 230, 242, 340, 347, 353, 356.
北海道，214，271，428。
假期，365。
Holiday, 365.
荷兰，人口密度，2。
Holland, density of population, 2.
首页，141，248，285。
家居行业，165，306，396，410 。
Home industries, 165, 306, 396, 410.
本州，385。
Honshu, 385.
霍普金斯博士，CG ，134，214，358。
Hopkins, Dr. C. G., 134, 214, 358.
马匹，401匹，402匹；每英里，3匹；繁殖，402匹，403匹。
Horses, 401, 402; per mile, 3; breeding, 402, 403.
园艺，415。
Horticulture, 415.
霍西，亚历山大，138，236，271，314，326，334，335，359。
Hosie, Alexander, 138, 236, 271, 314, 326, 334, 335, 359.
船屋，83，152-154，176，177，235。
Houseboat, 83, 152–154, 176, 177, 235.
哈德森，WH牧师，149。
Hudson, Rev. W. H., 149.
人类排泄物，9，19，193-199，257，296，397。
Human waste, 9, 19, 193–199, 257, 296, 397.
黄浩，98、101、104、107、110。
Hwang ho, 98, 101, 104, 107, 110.
卫生，198，199，323 。
我
I
宜昌，101。
Ichang, 101.
Imperial Agr. Exp’t Station, 423, 426.
进口，农产品，2。
Imports, agricultural, 2.
孵化器，177。
Incubator, 177.
内海，40。
Inland Sea, 40.
旅馆，142，394，400 。
International Concessions, wastes, 9, 53.
鸢尾花园，409。
Iris garden, 409.
灌溉，7，28 – 30，35，53，54，65，79，83，101，112，113，189，223，226，227，262，274，279，280，286，288，297 – 303，338，399，400，419 。
Irrigation, 7, 28–30, 35, 53, 54, 65, 79, 83, 101, 112, 113, 189, 223, 226, 227, 262, 274, 279, 280, 286, 288, 297–303, 338, 399, 400, 419.
灌溉水，211，280，400。
Irrigation water, 211, 280, 400.
Island of Chungming, 4, 61, 106.
J
J
约翰逊，玛格丽特，引自，395。
Johnson, Margaret, quoted, 395.
钾
K
开平，347。
Kaiping, 347.
康，141 – 143、248、261、338。
高粱，157、158、161-163、232、255、268、346、353、359。
Kaoliang, 157, 158, 161–163, 232, 255, 268, 346, 353, 359.
库页岛，272。
Karafuto, 272.
卡欣，99，150，163 。
川口博士，194、211、296。
Kawaguchi, Dr., 194, 211, 296.
江苏、100、113、300、316、319、331 ；
Kiangsu, 100, 113, 300, 316, 319, 331;
女人，140岁。
woman, 140.
胶州湾，158、221、222。
Kiaochow, 158, 221, 222; bay, 216, 222.
窑炉，86，143，163，164 。
麒麟，351。
Kirin, 351.
基蒂索尔斯，85岁。
Kittysols, 85.
韩国，365 – 374，151，159，271，312，380。
Korea, 365–374, 151, 159, 271, 312, 380.
九龙，62。
Kowloon, 62.
昆山，167。
Kunshan, 167.
贵州，321。
Kweichow, 321.
Kyoto, 403–409; experiment station, 401.
九州，377。
Kyushu, 377.
左
L
劳工，16，120，236，285，344，353，356，359 。
Laborers, 16, 120, 236, 285, 344, 353, 356, 359.
琵琶湖，412。
Lake Biwa, 412.
土地建设，60，97，106，109，110，330 。
Land-building, 60, 97, 106, 109, 110, 330.
土地所有者，427人。
Land owners, 427.
可开垦土地，425。
Lands reclaimable, 425.
土地价值，332，377，428。
利克斯，74岁。
Leeks, 74.
豆类，10，213，348，380。
堤坝，102、108、412、414。
利威尔，塞缪尔法官，252。
Lewell, Judge Samuel, 252.
廖，321，351，357，362 。
石灰，143、173、207、208、397、413；棺材中，55 ；窑炉中， 143 。
Lime, 143, 173, 207, 208, 397, 413; in coffins, 55; kilns, 143.
石灰石，供应稻田，280。
Limestone, supplied to rice fields, 280.
液体肥料，68，74，193-205，265，397，401 。
Liquid manure, 68, 74, 193–205, 265, 397, 401.
迷失，223。
Lost, 223.
莲花，133，377，414；根，132，133。
Lotus, 133, 377, 414; roots, 132, 133.
木材，锯切，63。
Lumber, sawing, 63.
午餐，76，121，374。
籃河346。
Lwan ho 346.
Lwanchow，348。
Lwanchow, 348.
米
M
通心粉，418。
Macaroni, 418.
玉米，268，347，348，353，359，367，418 。
Maize, 268, 347, 348, 353, 359, 367, 418.
满洲，142，157，159，161，236，345，348，350-363；受精，10，347，355 。
Manchuria, 142, 157, 159, 161, 236, 345, 348, 350–363; fertilization, 10, 347, 355.
满族头饰，361。
Manchu headdress, 361.
制造商，143、145、165、305、306、333、396、411 。
Manufacturers, 143, 145, 165, 305, 306, 333, 396, 411.
粪便，200；人类，73、194 – 199、257、397、401 ；液体，68、74、193 – 205、265、397；容器，70、199、201、257、401 ；蚕， 200 。
Manure, 200; human, 73, 194–199, 257, 397, 401; liquid, 68, 74, 193–205, 265, 397; receptacles, 70, 199, 201, 257, 401; silkworms, 200.
粪肥，绿色，208 – 211，286，289，295，309，377，379，380，397，400，411，413，417，418。
Manure, green, 208–211, 286, 289, 295, 309, 377, 379, 380, 397, 400, 411, 413, 417, 418.
地图，98、100、102、196、273；土壤， 424 。
Maps, 98, 100, 102, 196, 273; soils, 424.
市场，128 – 134，146，233。
果酱，415。
Marmalades, 415.
床垫制作，125。
Mattress making, 125.
Matting ，87，159，164，359，392-396 ；Rush，87，88，389，392-395 。
Matting, 87, 159, 164, 359, 392–396; rush, 87, 88, 389, 392–395.
美林，280。
Merrill, 280.
Meyermanns。B.博士，228。
Meyermanns. Dr. B., 228.
Milk, water buffalo, 149, 150.
密尔，123，145，256，413。
小米，7，8，157，161，226，255，268，342，346，349，353，356，358，359，360，362，367，422。
Millet, 7, 8, 157, 161, 226, 255, 268, 342, 346, 349, 353, 356, 358, 359, 360, 362, 367, 422.
密西西比州，110。
Mississippi, 110.
三又，164。
Mitsumata, 164.
茂木先生，40岁。
Mogi, 40.
纪念碑，362。
Monuments, 362.
“彼得的母亲” 252。
“Mother of Petre,” 252.
莫，254。
Mow, 254.
泥浆作为肥料，9，74，79，85，93，106，167-174，182-189，315，317 。
Mud as fertilizer, 9, 74, 79, 85, 93, 106, 167–174, 182–189, 315, 317.
奉天，5，158，159，345，348，350，359，360，362。
Mukden, 5, 158, 159, 345, 348, 350, 359, 360, 362.
桑树，79，83 – 85，164，170 – 173，200，311，315 – 319，332，412，414，418，419 ；叶，311，313 – 319 。
Mulberry, 79, 83–85, 164, 170–173, 200, 311, 315–319, 332, 412, 414, 418, 419; leaves, 311, 313–319.
桑树，纸，164。
Mulberry, paper, 164.
多种作物，11，263-270，274，349，360，396 。
Multiple cropping, 11, 263–270, 274, 349, 360, 396.
蘑菇，159。
Mushrooms, 159.
北
N
长崎，42，48，376，377。
Nagoya Exp’t Station, 315, 413.
南京，99，139，167，316。
奈良快速站，211 – 213，307，397，400 。
Nara Exp’t Station, 211–213, 307, 397, 400.
净额结算，306。
Netting, 306.
新昌，236、321、356、357、358 。
Newchwang, 236, 321, 356, 357, 358.
报纸，167。
Newspapers, 167.
新威州，365。
New Wiju, 365.
粪土，9，19，42，68，70，194-200，379，397，401。
Night soil, 9, 19, 42, 68, 70, 194–200, 379, 397, 401.
硝石耕作，252。
Nitre-farming, 252.
氮，143、169；排泄物中的氮，194；供给的氮，211、214、215、259、280、295、378、379、400、413 ；去除的氮，214、215、245、255；缺乏的氮， 357、358 。
Nitrogen, 143, 169; in excreta, 194; supplied, 211, 214, 215, 259, 280, 295, 378, 379, 400, 413; removed, 214, 215, 245, 255; lack, 357, 358.
托儿所，156。
Nursery, 156.
苗床，水稻，11，284-289，385。
Nursery beds, rice, 11, 284–289, 385.
哦
O
奥克斯，159，319，321，368 。
官方，中文，355。
Official, Chinese, 355.
油，143，145，190，256，257，蛋糕，145 149，190，257，379 。
Oils, 143, 145, 190, 256, 257, cakes, 145 149, 190, 257, 379.
洋葱，343。
Onions, 343.
鸦片，245。
Opium, 245.
大阪，37岁。
Osaka, 37.
磷
P
包装箱，165。
Packing cases, 165.
Paddy fields, returns and expenses, 428, 429.
Paper materials, 164; bags, 23; mulberry, 164.
帕克，爱德华 C.，358。
Parker, Edward C., 358.
停车场，400，405，407。
Peaches, 415; orchard, 34, 35, 417.
香港山顶，62岁。
Peak, Hongkong, 62.
花生，226，256，420，422 。
梨园，21-23，31，33，417。
Pear orchard, 21–23, 31, 33, 417.
梨，343，396，415 。
佩里准将，15 岁。
Perry, Commodore, 15.
磷，在排泄物中，194 , 197；在河水中，197；供给，74 , 112 , 143 , 207 , 211 - 215 , 259 , 280 , 295 , 378 , 379 , 400 , 413，去除，214 , 215 , 246 , 255 , 358。
Phosphorus, in excreta, 194, 197; in river water, 197; supplied, 74, 112, 143, 207, 211–215, 259, 280, 295, 378, 379, 400, 413, removed, 214, 215, 246, 255, 358.
松枝，86，151，155，221，414。
Pine boughs, 86, 151, 155, 221, 414.
松树苗圃，156。
Pine nursery, 156.
松树，雨伞，414。
Pine, umbrella, 414.
海盗，81。
Pirates, 81.
抹灰，161 – 163，243，252，337。
Plastering, 161–163, 243, 252, 337.
犁，225，385，386。
耕作，93，190，191，224，284，378 。
Plowing, 93, 190, 191, 224, 284, 378.
春亚纺，321。
Pongee, 321.
人口，乡村，27；日本，2，425；满洲，351 ；爱知，414 ；奈良，400；静冈，417；德岛，410 ；城乡，427；增长，425；密度，2，3，4，48，226，228，233，323 ；山东，216；齐齐哈尔， 351 。
Population, country village, 27; Japan, 2, 425; Manchuria, 351; Aichi, 414; Nara, 400; Shizuoka, 417; Tokushima, 410; urban and rural, 427; increase, 425; density, 2, 3, 4, 48, 226, 228, 233, 323; Shantung, 216; Tsitsihar, 351.
钾，在排泄物中，194；在地板中，254；去除，214、215、246、255、358；供应，74、112、143、207、211-215、259、280、378、379、400、413 ；在河水中， 197 。
Potassium, in excreta, 194; in floors, 254; removed, 214, 215, 246, 255, 358; supplied, 74, 112, 143, 207, 211–215, 259, 280, 378, 379, 400, 413; in river water, 197.
土豆，6，206，343，377，422。参见红薯。
Potatoes, 6, 206, 343, 377, 422. See sweet potatoes.
Poultry, 180; per mile, 3, 180.
鄱阳湖，104。
Poyang lake, 104.
价格，76，78，93，118，129 – 131，134，145，150，152，153，158，159，167，169，176，180，192，225，233，255，316，381，385，397，399。
Prices, 76, 78, 93, 118, 129–131, 134, 145, 150, 152, 153, 158, 159, 167, 169, 176, 180, 192, 225, 233, 255, 316, 381, 385, 397, 399.
庆亲王，39岁。
Prince Ching, 39.
泵，227，284 – 288，297 – 299，333 。
Pump, 227, 284–288, 297–299, 333.
抽水，284-286，399 。
普泰，106.R
Putai, 106.R
R
R
铁路，362。
Railroads, 362.
雨衣，15。
Raincoats, 15.
雨帽，85。
Rain hats, 85.
雨天鞋，17。
Rainy-day shoes, 17.
降雨量，6，117，226，228，268，345 。
Rainfall, 6, 117, 226, 228, 268, 345.
耙子，157。
Rake, 157.
强奸，6，128，143，190，192，268，290，319，380，422 。
Rape, 6, 128, 143, 190, 192, 268, 290, 319, 380, 422.
土地调整，31。
Readjustment of land, 31.
废物容器，70，199，201，257。
Receptacles for waste, 70, 199, 201, 257.
租金，209，342，428，430。
水库，104，113，115，167，400。
Reservoirs, 104, 113, 115, 167, 400.
大米，6、7、11、61、82、90、271 – 310、338、377、379、380、385、400、411、414、415、417 ；准备， 189 – 191 ；消耗， 271 ；生产， 272 ；苗床， 284 – 289、385 。
Rice, 6, 7, 11, 61, 82, 90, 271–310, 338, 377, 379, 380, 385, 400, 411, 414, 415, 417; preparing for, 189–191; consumed, 271; produced, 272; seed bed, 284–289, 385.
稻米栽培，271 – 310；翻耕，304、306；收割，302；抛光，304、307；脱粒，302。
Rice culture, 271–310; fanning, 304, 306; harvesting, 302; polishing, 304, 307; threshing, 302.
稻田，387、388、389、390、391、398、412、414、415；面积，27、103、105、271 ；杂草，385 。
Rice fields, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 398, 412, 414, 415; area, 27, 103, 105, 271; weeds, 385.
稻田，28 – 31，276，277，385，388，413，417。
Rice paddies, 28–31, 276, 277, 385, 388, 413, 417.
理查森，241。
Richardson, 241.
黄包车、15、118、223、256、260。
Ricksha, 15, 118, 223, 256, 260.
起垄，73，93，95，113，349，353，354。
Ridging, 73, 93, 95, 113, 349, 353, 354.
道路，222、236-239、256、339、385、388 ；
Roads, 222, 236–239, 256, 339, 385, 388;
Rondot，321。
Rondot, 321.
生根单，332。
Rooting slips, 332.
根，小麦，269。
Roots, wheat, 269.
Rose, white, 352; yellow, 221.
轮作，作物，309，380，412；土壤，173。
Rotation, of crops, 309, 380, 412; o soil, 173.
洛瑟姆斯特德实验，135。
Rothamsted experiments, 135.
决选票数：7，211，274，279。
拉什，87，88，389，392-395。
赖伊，367。
Rye, 367.
秒
S
马鞍，韩语，159。
Saddle, Korean, 159.
盐碱地，110。
Saline deposits, 110.
盐碱区，337，338，346 。
Saline districts, 337, 338, 346.
盐，138，332-337，338，346，355，377，393 。
Salt, 138, 332–337, 338, 346, 355, 377, 393.
咸白菜，128，129，190，268。
Salted cabbage, 128, 129, 190, 268.
凉鞋，307。
Sandals, 307.
卫生，12，75，77，78，198-199，323 。
Sanitation, 12, 75, 77, 78, 198–199, 323.
札幌，376。
Sapporo, 376.
锯切，63。
Sawing, 63.
Scidmore，总领事，376。
Scidmore, Consul-General, 376.
探照灯，72。
Searchlight, 72.
海堤，104。
Sea wall, 104.
沉积物，97，106，110 。
首尔，368。
Seoul, 368.
污水，19，194-199，397，401。
Sewage, 19, 194–199, 397, 401.
缝纫圈，120。
Sewing circle, 120.
缝纫机，64。
Sewing machine, 64.
上海，54，106，118，120，121，128，149，157，170，181，194-196，198；废物销售， 9 。
Shanghai, 54, 106, 118, 120, 121, 128, 149, 157, 170, 181, 194–196, 198; sale of wastes, 9.
山东，53，54，106，107，116，140，143，151，157，216-260，321，331，358 ；人口密度，3，216，226 ；男孩，260 ；劳动力，353；年产量， 6 ；降雨量， 7，226，22S 。
Shantung, 53, 54, 106, 107, 116, 140, 143, 151, 157, 216–260, 321, 331, 358; population density, 3, 216, 226; boy, 260; laborers, 353; crops per year, 6; rainfall, 7, 226, 22S.
羊，51、135、235只；每英里，3只。
Sheep, 51, 135, 235; per mile, 3.
鞋子，雨天，17。
Shoes, rainy-day, 17.
商店，25。
Shops, 25.
船舶建造，351。
Ship building, 351.
Shizuoka Exp’t station, 415, 416.
虾，175。
Shrimp, 175.
镰刀，302。
Sickle, 302.
丝绸，311 – 322；数量，12、164、311、312；虫子，313、314、319 – 322、368。
Silk, 311–322; amount, 12, 164, 311, 312; worms, 313, 314, 319–322, 368.
丝绸文化，11，311-322，414；废物，200。
Silk culture, 11, 311–322, 414; waste, 200.
Silk worms, wild, 319–322, 368.
丝绸，野生，319。
Silk, wild, 319.
稻田面积，277。
Size of rice paddies, 277.
拖鞋，307。
Slippers, 307.
吸烟，90，148，245-247。
蜗牛，175。
Snails, 175.
土壤调查，424。
Soil survey, 424.
苏州，151。
Soochow, 151.
煤烟，143。
Soot, 143.
大豆，31，122，213，226，255，256，268，309，341，342，379。
Soy beans, 31, 122, 213, 226, 255, 256, 268, 309, 341, 342, 379.
Spading，205。
Spading, 205.
势力范围，217。
Sphere of Influence, 217.
发芽的豆类和豌豆，134。
Sprouted beans and peas, 134.
壁球，419。
Squash, 419.
分期，64。
Staging, 64.
Stanley, Dr. Arthur, 149, 198.
雕像、花卉，67。
Statuary, floral, 67.
蒸，147。
Steaming, 147.
干燃料，138，143-146，157，158，413 。
Stem fuel, 138, 143–146, 157, 158, 413.
凳子，290。
Stools, 290.
炉子，234。
Stove, 234.
稻草，93、143、144、148、160、161、226、255、283、296、305、306、327、342、385、412；作为覆盖物，23、112、327、377、412、421 ；作为肥料， 385、422 。
Straw, 93, 143, 144, 148, 160, 161, 226, 255, 283, 296, 305, 306, 327, 342, 385, 412; as mulch, 23, 112, 327, 377, 412, 421; as fertilizer, 385, 422.
街道，42，63，249，250，339 。
Streets, 42, 63, 249, 250, 339.
甘蔗，83。
Sugar cane, 83.
硫磺，供给，280。
Sulphur, supplied, 280.
松花江，351。
Sungari, 351.
过磷酸钙，379。
Superphosphate, 379.
红薯，61，226，229，377，419，420 。
Sweet potatoes, 61, 226, 229, 377, 419, 420.
猪，70，135，233，353；每英里，3。
Swine, 70, 135, 233, 353; per mile, 3.
摇摆日，365天。
Swing day, 365.
四川，138，271，301，312，314，321，326，334-337。
Szechwan, 138, 271, 301, 312, 314, 321, 326, 334–337.
T
T
太平天国起义，284年。
Taiping rebellion, 284.
太郎，282，283，398 。
税，31，331，350，428，429，430。
Taxes, 31, 331, 350, 428, 429, 430.
茶，12，77，112，143，147，165，177，323 329，412，415，418 。
Tea, 12, 77, 112, 143, 147, 165, 177, 323 329, 412, 415, 418.
团队，232，341，354。
温度，满洲，345。
Temperature, Manchuria, 345.
梯田，45，46，70，105，277，278，279，363，376，388，390，391，417，418。
Terraces, 45, 46, 70, 105, 277, 278, 279, 363, 376, 388, 390, 391, 417, 418.
纺织品，164。
Textiles, 164.
茅草屋顶，31，331，350，428，429，430。
Thatching, 31, 331, 350, 428, 429, 430.
Théry，Edmond，350。
Théry, Edmond, 350.
脱粒，302。
Threshing, 302.
西藏，326。
Tibet, 326.
Tientsin, 330–344, 345; crops, 6.
瓷砖，161。
Tile, 161.
节省时间，261-269，288。
Time economizing, 261–269, 288.
烟草，121，245-247，415，419 。
Tobacco, 121, 245–247, 415, 419.
Tokito ，教授，22、376、405。
Tokito, Professor, 22, 376, 405.
移植，11，229，282，284，288 293，346，354，410 。
Transplanting, 11, 229, 282, 284, 288 293, 346, 354, 410.
Trellises, cucumbers, 36, 203; pears, 21.
济南，107，222-224 。
青岛，151，216，221，227-228，233，330 。
Tsingtao, 151, 216, 221, 227–228, 233, 330.
洞庭湖，104。
Tungting lake, 104.
Tussur silkworms, 319–322, 368.
台风，61。
Typhoon, 61.
呃
U
废物利用，193-207，232，251，257，269，280 。
Utilization of waste, 193–207, 232, 251, 257, 269, 280.
五
V
蔬菜，42，44，90，128，129，282，309，329，342，377，398，414，418，419 。
Vegetables, 42, 44, 90, 128, 129, 282, 309, 329, 342, 377, 398, 414, 418, 419.
素食主义者，134。
Vegetarians, 134.
车辆，236，238，341，361 。
村庄，拥挤，26，27，249，339。
Villages, crowded, 26, 27, 249, 339.
紫罗兰，37。
Violets, 37.
西
W
工资，93，118，120，154，169，218，234，285，332，344 。
Wages, 93, 118, 120, 154, 169, 218, 234, 285, 332, 344.
战争，成本，350。
War, cost, 350.
华盛顿，布克 T.，198。
Washington, Booker T., 198.
废物，利用，193 – 207，232，251，257，269，280 。
Waste, Utilization, 193–207, 232, 251, 257, 269, 280.
Water, per ton of crop, 7; supply, 69; for transplanting, 229, 230.
水牛，52，145，149，235，338 。
Water buffalo, 52, 145, 149, 235, 338.
莨菪，134。
Water caltropes, 134.
荸荠，134。
Water chestnuts, 134.
水草，134。
Water grass, 134.
Watermelons, 282, 283; seeds, 175.
水车，301，303，363，411。
Waterwheel, 301, 303, 363, 411.
编织，124。
Weaving, 124.
杂草，385。
Weeds, 385.
除草者，398。
Weeders, 398.
除草，293，388，398 。
杂草和牧场，209-211，295，296，417，425 。
Weed and pasture land, 209–211, 295, 296, 417, 425.
威海卫，217。
Weihaiwei, 217.
井，223、226-228；盐，138 。
Wells, 223, 226–228; salt, 138.
小麦，61，223，230，236，240，241，255，263-269，272，285，290，313，341，342，343，346，348，359，362，367，380，400，422 ；化肥去除量，214-215 。
Wheat, 61, 223, 230, 236, 240, 241, 255, 263–269, 272, 285, 290, 313, 341, 342, 343, 346, 348, 359, 362, 367, 380, 400, 422; fertilizers removed by, 214-215.
独轮车，59，119，128，239 ；男人，59，236 。
Wheelbarrow, 59, 119, 128, 239; men, 59, 236.
鞭打棉，126。
Whipping cotton, 126.
粉饰，222。
Whitewash, 222.
威州，365。
Wiju, 365.
怀尔德，阿莫斯 P.，72。
Wilder, Amos P., 72.
威廉姆斯，总领事ET ，331、343、344。
Williams, Consul-General E. T., 331, 343, 344.
防风林，330，342，347。
风车，332，333，335，346，355。
Windmills, 332, 333, 335, 346, 355.
冬季作物，37，90，290，380 。
Winter crops, 37, 90, 290, 380.
冬装，37，38，39，90，138，140 。
Winter dress, 37, 38, 39, 90, 138, 140.
Women, 63, 75, 248; gleaning, 340.
伍德，158，159，389 。
吴松，48岁。
Woosung, 48.
吴女士，141、201、248、284 – 288。
Wu, Mrs., 141, 201, 248, 284–288.
y
y
长江，48，50，60，97，101，104 。
Yangtse, 48, 50, 60, 97, 101, 104.
黄玫瑰，221。
Yellow rose, 221.
产量，134，160，231，233，241，242，254，255，264，271，285，306，309，314，315，319，326，329，341，343，359，360，379，380，393，397，413，417，422 。
Yields, 134, 160, 231, 233, 241, 242, 254, 255, 264, 271, 285, 306, 309, 314, 315, 319, 326, 329, 341, 343, 359, 360, 379, 380, 393, 397, 413, 417, 422.
横滨，15，138，198。
禹，大帝，107，108，216。